A Look at the Ancient Vedic Civilization Through the Vedas
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand]Victor Epand
Individuals can read about the ancient vedic civilizations that were associated with the India and Hindu societies through many vedic books that are now available on the market today. These books will give individuals a much more in dept look at these marvelous civilizations of old.
These ancient civilizations can be traced all the back to the very first millennium and classical forms of Hinduism have been found dating back to the six century. This period of time in India is known as the Vedic age, which consisted of the rise of Mahajanapadas who was succeeded by the age of Hinduism and the Sanskrit literature. Also included during the Vedic age was the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India as well.
The most archaic of any vedic texts that have been preserved are known as the Rigveda, which is also called the Veda. It is thought that its creation must have taken place over several centuries and was thought to be completed around three-thousand BC. Ultimately, the Rigveda is a collection of dedicated hymns and chants to the gods that are spread throughout ten books. However, there are over seventy-five original mantras that were not mentioned in the Rigveda simply because these mantras had to go through several different linguistic changes.
Another sacred text and one of the four basic Vedas, which is often called the fourth Veda, is known as the Atharvaveda. The Atharvaveda was composed by two groups known as the Bhrigus and the Khilani. The third basic Veda is known as the Samaveda and is the ancient core of Hindu scriptures. Another of the four basic Vedas is known as the Yajurveda and is more of a Hindu Veda text. It is thought that this vedic text was composed during the Samhita period. The vedic culture make the political shift from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges. The mood of this time was an injunctive that was characterized by the Sanskrit. Aorist is a term that in used in certain Indo-European languages that refer to particular grammer tenses and aspects of the Yajurveda. The last of the four basic Vedas is the Brahmana and is the oldest of these four basic Veda text. These religious scriptures focus on sacrifices of horses mostly. Another part of the ancient scriptures that focus on philosophy, meditation, and nature.
The Indo-Aryan migration and the Gandhara Grave culture are related to the cultures that remain controversial and politically charged in ancient Indian society, which often lead to disputes on the history of vedic culture. In the Rigveda, which is a collection of religious hymns is a variety of myths and stories throughout the first ten books. The oldest hymns can be found in books two through seven. Book nine of the Rigveda, which is often called the Soma Mandala, contain elements that were inherited from the pre-vedic period of the common Indo-Iranian society.
The Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists that had been subdivided into villages where each are headed by a tribal chief. These societies were characterized by rural lifestyles where cattle rearing was the primary occupation. To the people of these societies cattle and cows were held in high esteem, which is the reason they frequently appear in many of the mantra hymns and chants. Goddesses were often compared to cows and the gods were compared to bulls. There agriculture grew much more prominent with time as the community settled down. The people had to barter with cattle and other such valuables, which replaced financial commerce.
Victor Epand is an expert consultant about used books, autographed books, and Vedic books. When shopping for books, we recommend only the best bookstores for [http://www.usedbooksell.com]used books, [http://www.sellautographedbooks.com]autographed books.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand http://EzineArticles.com/?A-Look-at-the-Ancient-Vedic-Civilization-Through-the-Vedas&id=1551216
Wednesday, August 26, 2009
Tuesday, August 25, 2009
Cyprus History - Cradle of Civilizations
Cyprus History - Cradle of Civilizations
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates]Ozlem Canates
The name of the island was noticed in the written history during the period of the Roman Empire, which conquered the island from the successors of Alexander the Great. It is also known that, far before them, the civilization of Egypt and their arch rivals, the Hittites also arrived in the island. Phoenicians, a seafaring tribe, also took control of the island for a certain period of time. After 395 AD, the year of the split of the Roman Empire, Cyprus remained under the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Era had left numerous long-lasting traces in Cyprus.
Following the six-year rule of Isaac Comnenos, who seized control of the island upon the weakening of the Byzantine Rule, Cyprus fell under the influence of the Crusaders. Richard the Lion Heart, probably the best known of all the legendary kings who set foot on Cyprus, invaded Cyprus during a crusade to Jerusalem, with the aim of having a rest and tasting the wine of the island that was on everyone's tongue.
The island went through its brightest periods under the reign of the Lusignan dynasty after Templar Knights who bought the island from King Richard the Lion Heart. With the weakening of the Lusignans, Venetians seized the control of the island. Venetians used the island as a commercial base, leaving behind, at the same time, quite a good number of architecturally impressive works.
Ottoman armies and navy began to conquer the island in 1570 and because of the one-year resistance put up by Famagusta, accepted as one of the most important castle-cities of the period, the conquest was completed in one year.
As a reflection of the anti-colonialist movement that dominated the world after the Second World War, the Greek Cypriot independence movement was launched in 1955, which was opposed by Turkish Cypriots because of its intention of annexing Cyprus to Greece. In the aftermath of this, in 1959; Britain, Turkey and Greece signed the Zurich Agreement that provided for the establishment of a new state in Cyprus and thus the Republic of Cyprus was founded in 1960. this new republic lasted for three years only, owing to the Greek Cypriot attempts to master the state. In 1974, attempts to overthrow President Makarios and unite the island entirely with Greece by the nationalist forces who obtained support of the military junta in Greece was faced by the military intervention of Turkey.
Following the Turkish Army's Peace Operation in the northern part of Cyprus and setting up a control, Turks were assembled in the north and Greeks in the south and thus the island was physically divided into two. While the Greek Cypriots refused to establish a new state and claimed the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots who gathered in the north established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983.
Republic of Cyprus that had been turned into a de facto Greek state in the south of Cyprus still maintains its UN and EU membership today and recognition on behalf of all Cyprus. However, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, constituted by the Turkish Cypriots, is recognized only by Turkey. Though the parties are still carrying out long-standing negotiations on the Cyprus conflict that has been going on almost half a century, they have not managed to achieve a compromise settlement. At these negotiations while the Greek Cypriot side argues for a return to pre-1974 conditions, the Turkish Cypriot side insists on the establishment of a new state on the basis of the state of affairs that has emerged after 1974.
The information for North Cyprus Traveler: [http://www.a1cyprus.com]Best Rates North Cyprus Holidays
Added by Ozzi
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates http://EzineArticles.com/?Cyprus-History---Cradle-of-Civilizations&id=2631387
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates]Ozlem Canates
The name of the island was noticed in the written history during the period of the Roman Empire, which conquered the island from the successors of Alexander the Great. It is also known that, far before them, the civilization of Egypt and their arch rivals, the Hittites also arrived in the island. Phoenicians, a seafaring tribe, also took control of the island for a certain period of time. After 395 AD, the year of the split of the Roman Empire, Cyprus remained under the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Era had left numerous long-lasting traces in Cyprus.
Following the six-year rule of Isaac Comnenos, who seized control of the island upon the weakening of the Byzantine Rule, Cyprus fell under the influence of the Crusaders. Richard the Lion Heart, probably the best known of all the legendary kings who set foot on Cyprus, invaded Cyprus during a crusade to Jerusalem, with the aim of having a rest and tasting the wine of the island that was on everyone's tongue.
The island went through its brightest periods under the reign of the Lusignan dynasty after Templar Knights who bought the island from King Richard the Lion Heart. With the weakening of the Lusignans, Venetians seized the control of the island. Venetians used the island as a commercial base, leaving behind, at the same time, quite a good number of architecturally impressive works.
Ottoman armies and navy began to conquer the island in 1570 and because of the one-year resistance put up by Famagusta, accepted as one of the most important castle-cities of the period, the conquest was completed in one year.
As a reflection of the anti-colonialist movement that dominated the world after the Second World War, the Greek Cypriot independence movement was launched in 1955, which was opposed by Turkish Cypriots because of its intention of annexing Cyprus to Greece. In the aftermath of this, in 1959; Britain, Turkey and Greece signed the Zurich Agreement that provided for the establishment of a new state in Cyprus and thus the Republic of Cyprus was founded in 1960. this new republic lasted for three years only, owing to the Greek Cypriot attempts to master the state. In 1974, attempts to overthrow President Makarios and unite the island entirely with Greece by the nationalist forces who obtained support of the military junta in Greece was faced by the military intervention of Turkey.
Following the Turkish Army's Peace Operation in the northern part of Cyprus and setting up a control, Turks were assembled in the north and Greeks in the south and thus the island was physically divided into two. While the Greek Cypriots refused to establish a new state and claimed the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots who gathered in the north established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983.
Republic of Cyprus that had been turned into a de facto Greek state in the south of Cyprus still maintains its UN and EU membership today and recognition on behalf of all Cyprus. However, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, constituted by the Turkish Cypriots, is recognized only by Turkey. Though the parties are still carrying out long-standing negotiations on the Cyprus conflict that has been going on almost half a century, they have not managed to achieve a compromise settlement. At these negotiations while the Greek Cypriot side argues for a return to pre-1974 conditions, the Turkish Cypriot side insists on the establishment of a new state on the basis of the state of affairs that has emerged after 1974.
The information for North Cyprus Traveler: [http://www.a1cyprus.com]Best Rates North Cyprus Holidays
Added by Ozzi
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates http://EzineArticles.com/?Cyprus-History---Cradle-of-Civilizations&id=2631387
Wednesday, August 19, 2009
Cleopatra - The Last Egyptian Pharaoh
Cleopatra - The Last Egyptian Pharaoh
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt]Russell Shortt
Cleopatra! What a life! What a woman! What a nose! Like all the greats, she is known to one and all simply by the one name. Her's was a life that was set to dominate world events in the most dramatic of fashions. I blame the parents, from the day she graced the world with her presence, she was informed that she was a goddess, she believed herself to be divine. There were going to be stormy waters ahead. She was the first of the great Divas, her modern sisters Beyonce, Britney and Mariah pale in comparison. Perhaps she influenced them, but she took her influence from the gods themselves, using Isis and Aphrodite as her blueprints. Reinventing herself more than Madonna, Cleopatra was her own best publicist/historian, she had a mood and a costume for every occasion, enchanting the masses with mighty pageantry.
She is one of the most enduring figures in history, yet she is also one of the most elusive. Bizarrely and maddeningly, we still do not know what she actually looked like. Her beauty is feted but other accounts assert her to be beautiful as opposed to a beauty, we have no idea, we are not even certain whether she looked Greek or Egyptian. Much of the blame for the lack of sources can be apportioned to Octavian who ordered that all images of her be destroyed, he also spread tales about her which blurs the line between fact and fiction regarding her.
We know it began hairy, her beauty was a product of the union of a brother and sister, dodgy beginnings to say the least. At the tender age of eighteen, Cleopatra became joint monarch of Egypt along with her twelve year old brother, Ptolemy XIII who she bizarrely later married. Cleopatra didn't like to share anything, she attempted to depose of her younger brother/husband, but in the end it was her who was left fleeing the country with her younger sister. Gone but not for good, she spent her exile in the desert rallying Arab tribes to her cause. Meanwhile, however things were going a tad pear shaped back in Alexandria for Ptolemy XIII. Four thousand Roman legionnaires arrived in the port, led by none other than Julius Caesar himself. Ptolemy fled lively, Julius moved into the palace and began doling out orders. Cleopatra however, was not going to be so easily jilted; famously she smuggled her way into the palace in a rolled carpet. As it was unfurled, the beautiful Cleopatra gracefully emerged, capturing an audience with Caesar and his heart. Ptolemy was understandably rather furious; he had lost his sister, co-ruler, wife and kingdom. He waged war on Alexandria, it proved to be a rash decision, he lost the war and found himself at the bottom of the Nile.
Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt, albeit with serious Roman backing. Caesar believed that he would be able to use her as a puppet, he had obviously not really got to know her that well. She willingly married her eleven year old brother, Ptolemy XIV to appease the Alexandrian lobby whilst at the same time becoming pregnant in a hurry by Caesar. Their son, Ptolemy Caesar was born in 47 BCE, he became better known as Caesarion meaning Little Caesar. The little guy was something of a pawn between the two, Cleopatra realised that she required the support of Rome to keep her in control of Egypt, while Caesar had seen at first hand how the Egyptian people worshipped Cleopatra, that together they could unite Rome and Egypt and that Little Caesar would rule the whole shebang. However, it definitely was not solely a marriage of convenience, for Caesar brought his mistress back to Rome, although it shocked society, for Caesar was already married. He established her in his home, where she lived in rather a rock and roll fashion. She fashioned herself as the new Isis, refused to worship Roman gods, lived in opulence and basically scandalized Rome. The celebrity couple's exuberance was cut short however, with the assassination of Julius in 44 BCE by a conspiracy of Roman senators. Cleopatra fled Rome with the four year old Caesarion. She was in a perilous position, Caesar had not made any provisions for her, she returned to an Egypt that was ravaged by plague and famine. But Cleopatra was nothing if not capable, she quickly set about murdering her brother Ptolemy XIV and establishing herself and her cherished Little Caesar as co-regents.
In the wake of Julius Caesar's assassination, Rome was flung into a bloody battle of succession with Mark Antony's Second Triumvirate (consisting of he, Octavian and Lepidua) emerging victorious. He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in modern day Turkey under the dubious pretext of quizzing her about her loyalty. Cleopatra seized upon the opportunity, she arrived in the port of Tarsus with a magnificent fleet, sporting silver oars and purple sails. Cleopatra ensured that she made maximum impact, dressed as Aphrodite, being fanned by Erotes clad boys and Neried handmaidens. It worked, Mark Antony was bowled over, falling deeply in love with the Egyptian Queen. Cleopatra had marked him well, he was fond of wine and women, was vain, setting himself up as Dionysus and claiming to be ancestor of Hercules. The meeting became more than the cementing of a political alliance, it burgeoned into a marriage of two gods, their union would indeed change the order of the universe. Once again, Cleopatra brought the most powerful man in Rome back to Alexandria, once again he did favours for her (including killing her sister Aristone) and once again she fell pregnant quickly, giving birth to twins in 40 BCE, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene.
Mark Antony though had learnt well from the mistakes of Julius Caesar, he returned to his wife, Fulvia in Rome, leaving Cleopatra in Egypt, the two would not meet again for four years. Fulvia brought her own problems however, she had fallen foul of Octavian, but somewhat fortunately she died, giving Mark Anthony the opportunity to patch things ups with Octavian by marrying his sister, Octavia Minor. However, it was obvious that Mark Anthony was still quite smitten by Cleopatra, for when he went to war with the Parthians, he sent for her to meet him at Antioch. They exchanged gifts, Mark Anthony giving Cleopatra huge tracts of land while she opened up her bounteous coffers to him. In the subsequent war however, Mark Antony was fairly battered, he fell into the open and protective arms of Cleopatra, returning to Egypt with her in 35BCE, spurning Octavia who remained loyal to him and making Octavian furious. The die was cast, Mark Antony decided there was no going back, he married Cleopatra and at the Donations of Alexandria he began doling out parts of the Eastern Roman Empire between her and her children. Cleopatra never one to be behind the door, began to set her sights on becoming Empress of the world.
However, Octavian beat the lard out of Mark Antony at Actium in Greece and then pursued his retreating forces into Egypt. Mark Antony, believing Cleopatra to be dead, killed himself; Cleopatra followed suit a few days later preferring death than to see the Romans march victoriously through the streets of Alexandria. To the end she remained enchanting, calling for an asp to be brought to her, the Egyptian religion proclaimed that death by a snakebite would secure immortality. Her death marked the end of the Egyptian Monarchs, and so a culture that had spanned thousands of years ended, Egypt was conquered and inaugurated as a province into the Eastern Roman Empire. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland.
Article source: Russell Shortt - http://www.exploringireland.net - http://www.visitscotlandtours.com
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt http://EzineArticles.com/?Cleopatra---The-Last-Egyptian-Pharaoh&id=2550161
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt]Russell Shortt
Cleopatra! What a life! What a woman! What a nose! Like all the greats, she is known to one and all simply by the one name. Her's was a life that was set to dominate world events in the most dramatic of fashions. I blame the parents, from the day she graced the world with her presence, she was informed that she was a goddess, she believed herself to be divine. There were going to be stormy waters ahead. She was the first of the great Divas, her modern sisters Beyonce, Britney and Mariah pale in comparison. Perhaps she influenced them, but she took her influence from the gods themselves, using Isis and Aphrodite as her blueprints. Reinventing herself more than Madonna, Cleopatra was her own best publicist/historian, she had a mood and a costume for every occasion, enchanting the masses with mighty pageantry.
She is one of the most enduring figures in history, yet she is also one of the most elusive. Bizarrely and maddeningly, we still do not know what she actually looked like. Her beauty is feted but other accounts assert her to be beautiful as opposed to a beauty, we have no idea, we are not even certain whether she looked Greek or Egyptian. Much of the blame for the lack of sources can be apportioned to Octavian who ordered that all images of her be destroyed, he also spread tales about her which blurs the line between fact and fiction regarding her.
We know it began hairy, her beauty was a product of the union of a brother and sister, dodgy beginnings to say the least. At the tender age of eighteen, Cleopatra became joint monarch of Egypt along with her twelve year old brother, Ptolemy XIII who she bizarrely later married. Cleopatra didn't like to share anything, she attempted to depose of her younger brother/husband, but in the end it was her who was left fleeing the country with her younger sister. Gone but not for good, she spent her exile in the desert rallying Arab tribes to her cause. Meanwhile, however things were going a tad pear shaped back in Alexandria for Ptolemy XIII. Four thousand Roman legionnaires arrived in the port, led by none other than Julius Caesar himself. Ptolemy fled lively, Julius moved into the palace and began doling out orders. Cleopatra however, was not going to be so easily jilted; famously she smuggled her way into the palace in a rolled carpet. As it was unfurled, the beautiful Cleopatra gracefully emerged, capturing an audience with Caesar and his heart. Ptolemy was understandably rather furious; he had lost his sister, co-ruler, wife and kingdom. He waged war on Alexandria, it proved to be a rash decision, he lost the war and found himself at the bottom of the Nile.
Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt, albeit with serious Roman backing. Caesar believed that he would be able to use her as a puppet, he had obviously not really got to know her that well. She willingly married her eleven year old brother, Ptolemy XIV to appease the Alexandrian lobby whilst at the same time becoming pregnant in a hurry by Caesar. Their son, Ptolemy Caesar was born in 47 BCE, he became better known as Caesarion meaning Little Caesar. The little guy was something of a pawn between the two, Cleopatra realised that she required the support of Rome to keep her in control of Egypt, while Caesar had seen at first hand how the Egyptian people worshipped Cleopatra, that together they could unite Rome and Egypt and that Little Caesar would rule the whole shebang. However, it definitely was not solely a marriage of convenience, for Caesar brought his mistress back to Rome, although it shocked society, for Caesar was already married. He established her in his home, where she lived in rather a rock and roll fashion. She fashioned herself as the new Isis, refused to worship Roman gods, lived in opulence and basically scandalized Rome. The celebrity couple's exuberance was cut short however, with the assassination of Julius in 44 BCE by a conspiracy of Roman senators. Cleopatra fled Rome with the four year old Caesarion. She was in a perilous position, Caesar had not made any provisions for her, she returned to an Egypt that was ravaged by plague and famine. But Cleopatra was nothing if not capable, she quickly set about murdering her brother Ptolemy XIV and establishing herself and her cherished Little Caesar as co-regents.
In the wake of Julius Caesar's assassination, Rome was flung into a bloody battle of succession with Mark Antony's Second Triumvirate (consisting of he, Octavian and Lepidua) emerging victorious. He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in modern day Turkey under the dubious pretext of quizzing her about her loyalty. Cleopatra seized upon the opportunity, she arrived in the port of Tarsus with a magnificent fleet, sporting silver oars and purple sails. Cleopatra ensured that she made maximum impact, dressed as Aphrodite, being fanned by Erotes clad boys and Neried handmaidens. It worked, Mark Antony was bowled over, falling deeply in love with the Egyptian Queen. Cleopatra had marked him well, he was fond of wine and women, was vain, setting himself up as Dionysus and claiming to be ancestor of Hercules. The meeting became more than the cementing of a political alliance, it burgeoned into a marriage of two gods, their union would indeed change the order of the universe. Once again, Cleopatra brought the most powerful man in Rome back to Alexandria, once again he did favours for her (including killing her sister Aristone) and once again she fell pregnant quickly, giving birth to twins in 40 BCE, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene.
Mark Antony though had learnt well from the mistakes of Julius Caesar, he returned to his wife, Fulvia in Rome, leaving Cleopatra in Egypt, the two would not meet again for four years. Fulvia brought her own problems however, she had fallen foul of Octavian, but somewhat fortunately she died, giving Mark Anthony the opportunity to patch things ups with Octavian by marrying his sister, Octavia Minor. However, it was obvious that Mark Anthony was still quite smitten by Cleopatra, for when he went to war with the Parthians, he sent for her to meet him at Antioch. They exchanged gifts, Mark Anthony giving Cleopatra huge tracts of land while she opened up her bounteous coffers to him. In the subsequent war however, Mark Antony was fairly battered, he fell into the open and protective arms of Cleopatra, returning to Egypt with her in 35BCE, spurning Octavia who remained loyal to him and making Octavian furious. The die was cast, Mark Antony decided there was no going back, he married Cleopatra and at the Donations of Alexandria he began doling out parts of the Eastern Roman Empire between her and her children. Cleopatra never one to be behind the door, began to set her sights on becoming Empress of the world.
However, Octavian beat the lard out of Mark Antony at Actium in Greece and then pursued his retreating forces into Egypt. Mark Antony, believing Cleopatra to be dead, killed himself; Cleopatra followed suit a few days later preferring death than to see the Romans march victoriously through the streets of Alexandria. To the end she remained enchanting, calling for an asp to be brought to her, the Egyptian religion proclaimed that death by a snakebite would secure immortality. Her death marked the end of the Egyptian Monarchs, and so a culture that had spanned thousands of years ended, Egypt was conquered and inaugurated as a province into the Eastern Roman Empire. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland.
Article source: Russell Shortt - http://www.exploringireland.net - http://www.visitscotlandtours.com
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt http://EzineArticles.com/?Cleopatra---The-Last-Egyptian-Pharaoh&id=2550161
Friday, August 14, 2009
Rabbits Find Lost Roman Villas
Rabbits Find Lost Roman Villas
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
I recently visited a restored Roman Villa at Chedsworth, England in the Cotswold hills. They had some very beautiful mosaic floors on show, which were still largely intact, within the villa's restored bath houses and dining rooms. These mosaic panels, dating back from between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, were of great interest to me. The villa itself was made up of a rather large group of adjoining rooms, laid out in an extended three sided horseshoe shape. I was amazed at the size of this ancient farm or ranch, and the extent of its facilities , which included a running water toilet suite, with seating for several individuals and two extensive and opulent bath houses. The villa also boasted a private temple or chapel, with a pool fed by a spring. The temple was dedicated to the local water goddess. Less well preserved, were the remains of extensive colonnades for elegant porticos that once ran along the sides of the building. However the crowning glory was the indubitably the spacious dining hall, with its beautiful mosaic floor, which had the added luxury of under floor heating. To me, the overwhelming impression was that this villa seemed to be more of a comfortable holiday resort, designed for leisure, rather than a working farm.
I was told that in Britain and other European countries, burrowing rabbits and other animals are often responsible, for the discovery of long buried villas and other buildings from the Roman era. These little animals, whilst scratching down to make their burrows, bring up loose tesserae blocks, from buried mosaic floors and spread them around at the surface. These small multi-coloured stone blocks or tiles were probably first loosened up from the original mosaic floors by frost, shortly after the buildings were abandoned, many centuries ago. However once they had been brought to the surface by the rabbits, they have provided clues, to those in the know, that have led to the finding of the ancient remains of several buildings. Chedworth villa, itself, was discovered by two men who were trying to retrieve a ferret, while rabbit hunting in the late nineteenth century.
What amazed me about the floors at Chedworth Villa, was how professionally the mosaic work had been done. After all, Britain was a very remote and fairly poor part of the empire in this period and Chedworth itself was not near any big city or town. However, the owners of the estate must have been very wealthy to have had not one, but two, good sized bath suites with their mosaic decorated steam rooms, dry heat saunas and hot and cold plunge pools and also to have had the wonderful under floor heating system below the dining and living rooms. These facilities must have been treasures indeed in a cold British winter. But what a degree of sophistication to find so far off the beaten track! I'm sure that the mosaic artists must have been imported from overseas - the work was just too professional for a frontier province!
I have always been fascinated by the legacy that Rome has left us and I have to confess that my interest in mosaics as an art form has largely been inspired by the extraordinary richness of the Roman art that this medium has preserved so well. It provides color and sense of the continuance of life that the often grey record of centuries of history sometimes misses. Mosaic art is an open window into a world long past. It gives us a glimpse into a refined and leisurely lifestyle that was far removed from the gore of the gladiator's arena and all the pomp and splendor of Rome's military might. I have seen magnificent 2000 year old mosaics in the British Museum and around Rome, at places such as Ostia, at Caracalla's baths, and in the Vatican. These pieces are no mere architectural decoration, but have been great works of art in their own right. Moreover, they all look as though they were laid out just yesterday.
Mosaics are made to last - the ones we see today have outlasted kingdoms and empires. So any aspiring mosaic artists had better be sure that their work is up to scratch, and of the highest standard, because the most severe critic of their work might only be born around the year 4009. Maybe there will still be some wild rabbits left by then!
There is a useful web page called Roman Mosaics where you can see some photos of these fine mosaics. Check out [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58/]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58
I was once a builder of bridges and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about the vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that I call my home, but was once birth mother to us all. She still holds many untold stories waiting to be released.
I grew to manhood in the green forests of north of the Zambezi, but now gaze from my desk over the restless southern seas that beat against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve Coe
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Rabbits-Find-Lost-Roman-Villas&id=2304512
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
I recently visited a restored Roman Villa at Chedsworth, England in the Cotswold hills. They had some very beautiful mosaic floors on show, which were still largely intact, within the villa's restored bath houses and dining rooms. These mosaic panels, dating back from between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, were of great interest to me. The villa itself was made up of a rather large group of adjoining rooms, laid out in an extended three sided horseshoe shape. I was amazed at the size of this ancient farm or ranch, and the extent of its facilities , which included a running water toilet suite, with seating for several individuals and two extensive and opulent bath houses. The villa also boasted a private temple or chapel, with a pool fed by a spring. The temple was dedicated to the local water goddess. Less well preserved, were the remains of extensive colonnades for elegant porticos that once ran along the sides of the building. However the crowning glory was the indubitably the spacious dining hall, with its beautiful mosaic floor, which had the added luxury of under floor heating. To me, the overwhelming impression was that this villa seemed to be more of a comfortable holiday resort, designed for leisure, rather than a working farm.
I was told that in Britain and other European countries, burrowing rabbits and other animals are often responsible, for the discovery of long buried villas and other buildings from the Roman era. These little animals, whilst scratching down to make their burrows, bring up loose tesserae blocks, from buried mosaic floors and spread them around at the surface. These small multi-coloured stone blocks or tiles were probably first loosened up from the original mosaic floors by frost, shortly after the buildings were abandoned, many centuries ago. However once they had been brought to the surface by the rabbits, they have provided clues, to those in the know, that have led to the finding of the ancient remains of several buildings. Chedworth villa, itself, was discovered by two men who were trying to retrieve a ferret, while rabbit hunting in the late nineteenth century.
What amazed me about the floors at Chedworth Villa, was how professionally the mosaic work had been done. After all, Britain was a very remote and fairly poor part of the empire in this period and Chedworth itself was not near any big city or town. However, the owners of the estate must have been very wealthy to have had not one, but two, good sized bath suites with their mosaic decorated steam rooms, dry heat saunas and hot and cold plunge pools and also to have had the wonderful under floor heating system below the dining and living rooms. These facilities must have been treasures indeed in a cold British winter. But what a degree of sophistication to find so far off the beaten track! I'm sure that the mosaic artists must have been imported from overseas - the work was just too professional for a frontier province!
I have always been fascinated by the legacy that Rome has left us and I have to confess that my interest in mosaics as an art form has largely been inspired by the extraordinary richness of the Roman art that this medium has preserved so well. It provides color and sense of the continuance of life that the often grey record of centuries of history sometimes misses. Mosaic art is an open window into a world long past. It gives us a glimpse into a refined and leisurely lifestyle that was far removed from the gore of the gladiator's arena and all the pomp and splendor of Rome's military might. I have seen magnificent 2000 year old mosaics in the British Museum and around Rome, at places such as Ostia, at Caracalla's baths, and in the Vatican. These pieces are no mere architectural decoration, but have been great works of art in their own right. Moreover, they all look as though they were laid out just yesterday.
Mosaics are made to last - the ones we see today have outlasted kingdoms and empires. So any aspiring mosaic artists had better be sure that their work is up to scratch, and of the highest standard, because the most severe critic of their work might only be born around the year 4009. Maybe there will still be some wild rabbits left by then!
There is a useful web page called Roman Mosaics where you can see some photos of these fine mosaics. Check out [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58/]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58
I was once a builder of bridges and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about the vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that I call my home, but was once birth mother to us all. She still holds many untold stories waiting to be released.
I grew to manhood in the green forests of north of the Zambezi, but now gaze from my desk over the restless southern seas that beat against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve Coe
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Rabbits-Find-Lost-Roman-Villas&id=2304512
Ancient Egypt - Ka and the Soul
Ancient Egypt - Ka and the Soul
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To the ancient Egyptians, the Ka was a concept of the animating life force within us all. It was conceived as a second image of the individual or in effect a spirit double. The Ka was a unique entity totally associated with the individual, coming into creation with the person's birth and remained bound to him or to her, even after death. It was not quite the same concept as the personal soul, which they identified separately and called the Ba. The Ba was actually the true essence of the spirit, and defined the person as a specific individual or entity with a place in the cosmos for all eternity. The ceremony of the opening of the mouth, conducted by the priests, either on the mummified corpse or on a statue representation of the dead person, was aimed to restore physical abilities in death and to release the attachment of the soul (Ba) to the body. This allowed the Ba to be united with the Ka in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an Akh. The union of Ba and Ka is symbolized by the looped cross - the Ankh, symbol of eternal life.
We often think of these ancient people as a nation fixated on death and morbidly terrified of its corrupting effect. A fear, manifest by a ghoulish fascination with embalmed corpses. Nothing could be more untrue! They were actually a people fixated on life. In all their works they really show how much they loved life and it is very clear that as a race, they celebrated it with a passion. In fact they did not even believe in a concept of death in the way we think of it. The end of their physical life was but a passing moment in an everlasting rush towards eternity.
This joyful celebration of life was brought home to me, when I came across a near life-sized wood carving of a man and his wife in a quiet corner of a European museum. They had been carved out of a single log and were slightly the worst for wear, but for some reason, these two tranquil figures moved me greatly, when I first saw them in the Louvre, over 30 years ago. Taken as individual statues, they were not great works of art; they looked timeworn and vulnerable, yet seen as a couple they seemed to hold an immense inner strength - a fierce bond that had somehow managed to safeguard the essence of their timeless union throughout all the long ages of their shared existence. It was as though they could endure anything that time could offer, just so long as they were left each to the other.
Who had found them and brought them from the warm sands that protected them to this cold and gloomy museum? Why had they been so disturbed. Like misty dreams, the busy years, in their never-ending passage had left these sleeping lovers untouched and unchanged as they rested, long forgotten in their secret hiding place below the sun-baked sands of their ancient homeland. They waited unseen and un-noticed as the desert land witnessed the rush of Alexander's spearmen, felt the tramp, tramp of Caesar's marching legions and shook in trembling awe at the thunder of Bonaparte's crashing cannonades. Powerful conquerors, beautiful queens, saints, scholars and many, many lesser men had come and gone - yet these two lovers still remained serene and secure, arms intertwined, always together - waiting for what?
It was with a growing sense of wonder that I began to understand just how old these two ancient figures actually were. They had been standing quietly thus - arm in arm, eternally watching the flows of time, while all the great religions of the world had had their birthing and entire civilizations had taken their turn to rise up and fall around them. Indeed, these small carvings had already been immensely old when ancient Greece was but a land of rustic shepherds and mighty Rome was only a dusty village straddling an unimportant river crossing. Their long watch had already stretched, not over centuries, but over whole millennia, before the great teachers, Abraham, Christ, Buddha and Mohammed each took their turn to preach love and understanding to generations of unhearing fools. Fools, blinded by distorted certainties, crippled in spirit who were ever eager to rush out to change the world, armed and justified by their garbled misread gospels and their fierce willingness to spill their brother's blood.
The museum was full of the greatest works of man, but neither the wealth and power of the kings, pharaohs and emperors on display, nor the exquisite beauty of the magnificent art treasures adorning the walls, impressed me ever so much as this very ordinary couple, who had left nothing but themselves. Their fundamental humanity, decency, and the love that they had once shared for each other was still so very apparent. Back then in Paris, I was young and also in love for the first time myself. My world was bright and wonderful and I thought it would last forever. However for those of us, who still walk this earth, life goes on, and time gradually takes its insidious toll on our bodies, our affections and the commitments that go with them. We get over our losses; eventually even the most poignant memories are just excess baggage to be put aside. For us, time indeed passes and never lightly. But then one day, opening a book on ancient Egypt, I was delighted to discover a recent photograph of these two old friends of my youth. There they were - just as I remembered them! Half a lifetime had passed for me and I was now a different person, "something lost and something gained, by living every day" - but for them nothing at all had changed.
How brief life is! The experiences of all those long years, since my joyful days in Paris, were but the blinking of an eye compared to the immense passage of time, since that distant Egyptian day, when the statues were taken west of the Nile to be prepared by the priests for the "opening of the mouth" ceremony. The ritual that would guarantee that the "ka", or life force, of each of the lovers would live forever in the statues and that they would be bonded to their chosen one for all of eternity.
Old feelings came flooding back to me and that was why I wrote my poem. My poem, Ka, can be found at [http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html]http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html. I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer. I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free. I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world. My website is - http://www.how-to-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Ancient-Egypt---Ka-and-the-Soul&id=2655355
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To the ancient Egyptians, the Ka was a concept of the animating life force within us all. It was conceived as a second image of the individual or in effect a spirit double. The Ka was a unique entity totally associated with the individual, coming into creation with the person's birth and remained bound to him or to her, even after death. It was not quite the same concept as the personal soul, which they identified separately and called the Ba. The Ba was actually the true essence of the spirit, and defined the person as a specific individual or entity with a place in the cosmos for all eternity. The ceremony of the opening of the mouth, conducted by the priests, either on the mummified corpse or on a statue representation of the dead person, was aimed to restore physical abilities in death and to release the attachment of the soul (Ba) to the body. This allowed the Ba to be united with the Ka in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an Akh. The union of Ba and Ka is symbolized by the looped cross - the Ankh, symbol of eternal life.
We often think of these ancient people as a nation fixated on death and morbidly terrified of its corrupting effect. A fear, manifest by a ghoulish fascination with embalmed corpses. Nothing could be more untrue! They were actually a people fixated on life. In all their works they really show how much they loved life and it is very clear that as a race, they celebrated it with a passion. In fact they did not even believe in a concept of death in the way we think of it. The end of their physical life was but a passing moment in an everlasting rush towards eternity.
This joyful celebration of life was brought home to me, when I came across a near life-sized wood carving of a man and his wife in a quiet corner of a European museum. They had been carved out of a single log and were slightly the worst for wear, but for some reason, these two tranquil figures moved me greatly, when I first saw them in the Louvre, over 30 years ago. Taken as individual statues, they were not great works of art; they looked timeworn and vulnerable, yet seen as a couple they seemed to hold an immense inner strength - a fierce bond that had somehow managed to safeguard the essence of their timeless union throughout all the long ages of their shared existence. It was as though they could endure anything that time could offer, just so long as they were left each to the other.
Who had found them and brought them from the warm sands that protected them to this cold and gloomy museum? Why had they been so disturbed. Like misty dreams, the busy years, in their never-ending passage had left these sleeping lovers untouched and unchanged as they rested, long forgotten in their secret hiding place below the sun-baked sands of their ancient homeland. They waited unseen and un-noticed as the desert land witnessed the rush of Alexander's spearmen, felt the tramp, tramp of Caesar's marching legions and shook in trembling awe at the thunder of Bonaparte's crashing cannonades. Powerful conquerors, beautiful queens, saints, scholars and many, many lesser men had come and gone - yet these two lovers still remained serene and secure, arms intertwined, always together - waiting for what?
It was with a growing sense of wonder that I began to understand just how old these two ancient figures actually were. They had been standing quietly thus - arm in arm, eternally watching the flows of time, while all the great religions of the world had had their birthing and entire civilizations had taken their turn to rise up and fall around them. Indeed, these small carvings had already been immensely old when ancient Greece was but a land of rustic shepherds and mighty Rome was only a dusty village straddling an unimportant river crossing. Their long watch had already stretched, not over centuries, but over whole millennia, before the great teachers, Abraham, Christ, Buddha and Mohammed each took their turn to preach love and understanding to generations of unhearing fools. Fools, blinded by distorted certainties, crippled in spirit who were ever eager to rush out to change the world, armed and justified by their garbled misread gospels and their fierce willingness to spill their brother's blood.
The museum was full of the greatest works of man, but neither the wealth and power of the kings, pharaohs and emperors on display, nor the exquisite beauty of the magnificent art treasures adorning the walls, impressed me ever so much as this very ordinary couple, who had left nothing but themselves. Their fundamental humanity, decency, and the love that they had once shared for each other was still so very apparent. Back then in Paris, I was young and also in love for the first time myself. My world was bright and wonderful and I thought it would last forever. However for those of us, who still walk this earth, life goes on, and time gradually takes its insidious toll on our bodies, our affections and the commitments that go with them. We get over our losses; eventually even the most poignant memories are just excess baggage to be put aside. For us, time indeed passes and never lightly. But then one day, opening a book on ancient Egypt, I was delighted to discover a recent photograph of these two old friends of my youth. There they were - just as I remembered them! Half a lifetime had passed for me and I was now a different person, "something lost and something gained, by living every day" - but for them nothing at all had changed.
How brief life is! The experiences of all those long years, since my joyful days in Paris, were but the blinking of an eye compared to the immense passage of time, since that distant Egyptian day, when the statues were taken west of the Nile to be prepared by the priests for the "opening of the mouth" ceremony. The ritual that would guarantee that the "ka", or life force, of each of the lovers would live forever in the statues and that they would be bonded to their chosen one for all of eternity.
Old feelings came flooding back to me and that was why I wrote my poem. My poem, Ka, can be found at [http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html]http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html. I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer. I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free. I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world. My website is - http://www.how-to-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Ancient-Egypt---Ka-and-the-Soul&id=2655355
Mosaics In Roman Baths
Mosaics In Roman Baths
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To say that the ancient Romans were obsessed with bathing would not be a great exaggeration. At it's heyday, around 100 AD, the city of Rome had over 30 public baths and a host of private establishments. Rome was extremely well watered, with eleven great aqueducts bringing a huge amount of water into the city - some estimates give a figure as high as 1000 liters per day per person (about four times as much water as a modern American would use). Water-borne sewage, in a vast network of sewers laid under the streets, kept the city clean and healthy. Much of this abundant water was allocated to the "thermae" or public bathing facilities.
A Roman public bath, in imperial times, was very impressive facility, in many respects a combination of a sports centre or gym and a country club - though the larger ones would have dwarfed most similar modern facilities. Besides spacious halls for the swimming pools, there were suites of rooms, containing the equivalent of modern Turkish Baths (steam) and Scandinavian style Saunas (dry heat), Jacuzzis (warm pools), ice-cold plunge pools as well as exercise halls, massage rooms, toilet facilities, lounges and even public libraries. Extensive gardens surrounded the main structures and there were exercise yards for the athletically inclined.
The prestigious public baths in Rome and in many of the other important cities were endowed personally by the reigning emperor and were a means of stressing his importance, status and power. A large portion of the water from the aqueducts was reserved for the baths and one aqueduct - the Aquis Alexandretta was built specifically for this purpose. What is interesting, is that the facilities were not confined to the use of the upper classes and were open to all free citizens of the empire, though there may have been a very nominal entrance fee of a couple of copper coins. Public decorum was preserved and there were separate times set at the public baths for the bathing of women and men.
In order to embellish the massive halls, with their acres of concrete pavements and many enclosed suites of hot and cold rooms, the medium of choice was always mosaics. Artists were commissioned to create works on a huge scale and on a variety of themes - though water-related themes, such as playing dolphins, representations of waves and the depictions of water gods such as Neptune prevailed. Using mosaic motifs for floor and wall covering was both decorative and practical, for it not only added to the sense of luxury and elegance, but it also waterproofed and prorected the base concrete and made the surfaces easy to keep clean. An important consideration was that the use of brilliant white marble or other light coloured tesserae (mosaic blocks) for larger areas of background in the art work ensured that maximum use was made of reflected light to brighten up the rooms.
As an example of imperial splendor, the Baths of Caracalla at Rome remain the most impressive. They were built on a massive scale and, even in their ruined state, one can get a sense of the opulence and grandeur that they once represented. This was recognised by the Italian dictator Mussolini and since his time the great halls have been used as a most impressive backdrop for seasonal night time operatic productions.
Millions of baked clay bricks and tons of concrete were used in the building of the Baths and the original mosaic floors would easily have covered several football fields. Most of the floors were covered with repetitive geometric patterns of coloured tesserae, but there were also cheerful dichromatic works featuring dark figures of dolphins, charioteers, bulls and musicians, picked out skillfuly, against brilliant white marble backgrounds. The artists have managed to capture a great sense of movement and vivacity in their work, using just these two colors of tesserae.
One cannot but be amazed at the planning and care that went into setting out artwork on such a scale to cover these huge areas of floor - Where did they get all the mosaic artists and artisans, capable of maintaining the unity and spirit of these enormous pieces?
Not far to the east of Rome, where the Tiber meets the sea is the ancient city of Ostia. This seaport was the entrepot of Rome and was a well laid out, compact port city of merchants, shipwrights, tavern keepers and prostitutes - an industrial / commercial city that had the responsibility of despatching food and produce to the mother city. It was primarily a functional trading town, but nevertheless, possessed great public facilities.
There was a fine amphitheatre, a forum and other public spaces, many splendid temples, water-borne toilets and, of course, well appointed public baths (thermae). The two preserved baths were lavish and spacious, with floor coverings of exquisite dichromatic mosaic art - much of it still in good condition. The baths took up a sizeable area of the central city and were obviously of great importance to the hard working populace, who would have been mainly middle class merchants and dockyard workers.
In England an ancient Roman villa has been lovingly restored at Chedworth, near the town of Cirencester. There were two luxurious bathing suites attached to the buildings of this extensive homestead. Each of the bath houses had several beautiful mosaic floors, featuring geometric patterns and borders, but also displaying motifs such as figures, birds and flowers. A number of these bright floors were set up on stubby hippocaust columns and hot air was drafted through the space underneath, to provide central heating to chase away the winter chill. The floor mosaics themselves were set out with a small palette of whites, greys, yellows and browns, all cut from local stones.
However the prominant terracotta red tesserae were re-cycled ceramics, from baked roof tiles. The villa was in a remote area, a great distance from the heart of the empire, and it is not plausible that the necessary artistic skills and mosaic techniques would have been found locally, in order to produce such impressive work. The owner's of the farm must have been wealthy enough to have imported the services of migrant professional mosaic workers, presumably working under contract, to embellish their home. Incidentally it was the mosaics themselves that led to the re-discovery of the villa, which had become buried in time, following its abandonment in the fourth century. Burrowing rabbits had unearthed loose mosaic pieces (tesserae) and these colourful blocks were noticed by some woodsmen on a hunting expedition, who then informed the local squire.
We can still see many of these wonderful mosaics of the Roman world looking as bright and cheerful, as the day they were first laid out. A 2000 year testimony to the durability of this versatile medium. For some photographs of mosaics in Roman baths, you can visit the site [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com.
I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free.
I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Mosaics-In-Roman-Baths&id=2585707
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To say that the ancient Romans were obsessed with bathing would not be a great exaggeration. At it's heyday, around 100 AD, the city of Rome had over 30 public baths and a host of private establishments. Rome was extremely well watered, with eleven great aqueducts bringing a huge amount of water into the city - some estimates give a figure as high as 1000 liters per day per person (about four times as much water as a modern American would use). Water-borne sewage, in a vast network of sewers laid under the streets, kept the city clean and healthy. Much of this abundant water was allocated to the "thermae" or public bathing facilities.
A Roman public bath, in imperial times, was very impressive facility, in many respects a combination of a sports centre or gym and a country club - though the larger ones would have dwarfed most similar modern facilities. Besides spacious halls for the swimming pools, there were suites of rooms, containing the equivalent of modern Turkish Baths (steam) and Scandinavian style Saunas (dry heat), Jacuzzis (warm pools), ice-cold plunge pools as well as exercise halls, massage rooms, toilet facilities, lounges and even public libraries. Extensive gardens surrounded the main structures and there were exercise yards for the athletically inclined.
The prestigious public baths in Rome and in many of the other important cities were endowed personally by the reigning emperor and were a means of stressing his importance, status and power. A large portion of the water from the aqueducts was reserved for the baths and one aqueduct - the Aquis Alexandretta was built specifically for this purpose. What is interesting, is that the facilities were not confined to the use of the upper classes and were open to all free citizens of the empire, though there may have been a very nominal entrance fee of a couple of copper coins. Public decorum was preserved and there were separate times set at the public baths for the bathing of women and men.
In order to embellish the massive halls, with their acres of concrete pavements and many enclosed suites of hot and cold rooms, the medium of choice was always mosaics. Artists were commissioned to create works on a huge scale and on a variety of themes - though water-related themes, such as playing dolphins, representations of waves and the depictions of water gods such as Neptune prevailed. Using mosaic motifs for floor and wall covering was both decorative and practical, for it not only added to the sense of luxury and elegance, but it also waterproofed and prorected the base concrete and made the surfaces easy to keep clean. An important consideration was that the use of brilliant white marble or other light coloured tesserae (mosaic blocks) for larger areas of background in the art work ensured that maximum use was made of reflected light to brighten up the rooms.
As an example of imperial splendor, the Baths of Caracalla at Rome remain the most impressive. They were built on a massive scale and, even in their ruined state, one can get a sense of the opulence and grandeur that they once represented. This was recognised by the Italian dictator Mussolini and since his time the great halls have been used as a most impressive backdrop for seasonal night time operatic productions.
Millions of baked clay bricks and tons of concrete were used in the building of the Baths and the original mosaic floors would easily have covered several football fields. Most of the floors were covered with repetitive geometric patterns of coloured tesserae, but there were also cheerful dichromatic works featuring dark figures of dolphins, charioteers, bulls and musicians, picked out skillfuly, against brilliant white marble backgrounds. The artists have managed to capture a great sense of movement and vivacity in their work, using just these two colors of tesserae.
One cannot but be amazed at the planning and care that went into setting out artwork on such a scale to cover these huge areas of floor - Where did they get all the mosaic artists and artisans, capable of maintaining the unity and spirit of these enormous pieces?
Not far to the east of Rome, where the Tiber meets the sea is the ancient city of Ostia. This seaport was the entrepot of Rome and was a well laid out, compact port city of merchants, shipwrights, tavern keepers and prostitutes - an industrial / commercial city that had the responsibility of despatching food and produce to the mother city. It was primarily a functional trading town, but nevertheless, possessed great public facilities.
There was a fine amphitheatre, a forum and other public spaces, many splendid temples, water-borne toilets and, of course, well appointed public baths (thermae). The two preserved baths were lavish and spacious, with floor coverings of exquisite dichromatic mosaic art - much of it still in good condition. The baths took up a sizeable area of the central city and were obviously of great importance to the hard working populace, who would have been mainly middle class merchants and dockyard workers.
In England an ancient Roman villa has been lovingly restored at Chedworth, near the town of Cirencester. There were two luxurious bathing suites attached to the buildings of this extensive homestead. Each of the bath houses had several beautiful mosaic floors, featuring geometric patterns and borders, but also displaying motifs such as figures, birds and flowers. A number of these bright floors were set up on stubby hippocaust columns and hot air was drafted through the space underneath, to provide central heating to chase away the winter chill. The floor mosaics themselves were set out with a small palette of whites, greys, yellows and browns, all cut from local stones.
However the prominant terracotta red tesserae were re-cycled ceramics, from baked roof tiles. The villa was in a remote area, a great distance from the heart of the empire, and it is not plausible that the necessary artistic skills and mosaic techniques would have been found locally, in order to produce such impressive work. The owner's of the farm must have been wealthy enough to have imported the services of migrant professional mosaic workers, presumably working under contract, to embellish their home. Incidentally it was the mosaics themselves that led to the re-discovery of the villa, which had become buried in time, following its abandonment in the fourth century. Burrowing rabbits had unearthed loose mosaic pieces (tesserae) and these colourful blocks were noticed by some woodsmen on a hunting expedition, who then informed the local squire.
We can still see many of these wonderful mosaics of the Roman world looking as bright and cheerful, as the day they were first laid out. A 2000 year testimony to the durability of this versatile medium. For some photographs of mosaics in Roman baths, you can visit the site [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com.
I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free.
I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Mosaics-In-Roman-Baths&id=2585707
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