A Brief History of Maps

Maps Of The World: Their Evolution Through The Ages by Lucien Oliveira

Cartography, or map-making, is an ancient "art". Archeologists have found maps of the world dating from pre-Christian eras. The earliest world maps discovered were made by the Babylonians. They were symbolic maps instead of literal representation, but they had already shown cardinal directions. These maps show how map-making was always very important to the human kind. Although they were not as far accurate as our modern maps of the world, they were still very significant to the civilisations that created them.

On history of cartography, you can even find local and regional maps drawn by indigenous people. Ancient Egyptians also produced maps, emphasizing geometry and surveying techniques to draw them. But the first world scale maps were made by the ancient Greek. They made speculations on Earth's size and shape, though, at first, they represented our planet as a circular flat disc. Ptolemy, a famous Greek philosopher, introduced several cartographic innovations and influenced several centuries to come. His world maps, nonetheless, were distorted in orientation and shape. Also, he made use of two other sciences to help on map-making: astronomy and mathematics. Furthermore, it was the Greek philosophers who first assumed that the Earth was spherical. They also made scientific estimates on Earth's circumference. In addition, it was Eratosthenes, another Greek philosopher, who made great achievements on this field. He created the concept of meridian and parallel, and was also the first to divide the Earth in five climate areas correctly.

European maps came a long way before becoming what they are now. In early Middle Ages, people still insisted on the concept that the Earth was a flat disc. It was in these ages that the mappae mundi were drawn. They consisted of four types of world maps: zonal maps (divided in five climate zones), tripartite (the three known continents), quadripartite (the three known continents and an equatorial ocean), and complex maps (tripartite showing more details such as cities and topography elements). Until Renaissance, there wasn't much improvement. But in this period, though, the discovery of the Americas and the need of controlling and dividing those lands encouraged surveys again.

In 1884, Greenwich prime meridian was defined as international standard reference, and in the 20th century, maps became quite abundant due to improvements in fields like printing and photography. As technology advances were made, cartography became a more complex science. First, we had brushes and parchment, but nowadays we can produce far more accurate maps of the world using discoveries such as compass, telescope, sextant, quadrant, vernier, printing press, etc. We also have a huge range of map types and styles. Apart from topographic and political world maps, we can have thematic maps on specific subjects which are oriented to specific audiences. Colors, symbols, the compass rose, legends, among others are largely used to make details easy to comprehend.

In conclusion, the maps of the world have gone a long journey to become what they are now but, with all these modern achievements, we can virtually have world maps displaying the surface of the Earth in any map projection we need.


Lucien Oliveira is a freelance writer with strong interest nature, environment and earth. You can find more on map of the world . Read more about world maps and animal tracking.

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History of The Cycladic Islands

Santorini History of the Cycladic Islands
By Fotis Pitsas

No one knows exactly when the Cyclades were first inhabited. From obsidian finds in the 8th millennium stratum on Milos and in Frankthi Cave in Hermioni (Argolid Peninsula), we can conclude that the Cyclades were already inhabited at that time.

It is generally believed that the Phoenicians and the Carians inhabited the Cyclades during prehistoric times. Later, the islands came under the Minoan sphere of influence.

They were then re-inhabited by the Carians, and finally colonized by the Ionians.

The most ancient settlement found in the Cyclades is on Saliagos, a small islet between Paros and Antiparos. The settlement dates from the beginning of the late Neolithic period, c. 4300-3900 BC.

The discovery in 1959 of surface traces of prehistoric habitation lead to excavations (1964-65), which were conducted by the British School of Archeology Stone figurines, anthropomorphic amulets, Milos pottery with white decoration, and hundreds of obsidian tools, arrowheads and votive offerings were unearthed in the excavations.

A fortification wall with a turret surrounded the settlement, which was made up of small residences. Archaeologists exposed three archaeological strata corresponding to three periods of habitation. Earliest known it is speculated that the settlement extended into sections that are now underwater. Moreover, it is likely that during that era Saliagos was part of Antiparos.

The large quantity of obsidian chips found on Saliagos is conclusive evidence that the islet was one of the early processing and trading stations for obsidian from Milos.

Obsidian, marble and emery were the raw materials used in the Cyclades to make both tools as well as artworks. In general, the Cycladic peoples had limited resources. This fact inspired them to utilize their ingenuity, to take advantage of what nature provided and to expand into new activities such as tool-making, shipping and trade.

Their economy was probably mixed combining farming, livestock raising, hunting and fishing, along with the exploitation of local raw materials.

Cycladic potters developed a technique of painting white designs on a dark back-ground. The pots, which are shaped like fruit bowls with a long leg, have white decoration on a dark back-ground. Most characteristic of the Neolithic period are the schematic marble figurines, the most famous of which is the so-called Fat Lady of Saliagos.

During the Bronze Age, Cycladic civilization produced works of art that are unique in the Aegean region. Cycladic idols, carved from local white marble, are regarded as refined works of mature, sophisticated artists.

By the early Bronze Age (3200-2200 BC) the Cyclades had developed an advanced culture that had extensive contact with the other player islands in the region.

Shipping had expanded, elevating trade and commerce to a primary position in the Cycladic economy and significantly influencing social development and change in the Aegean.

There is a long List of Greek islands including Cycladic Island-Mykonos and Cycladic island - Santorini.

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The Ionian Revolt, Why Persia Wanted to Conquer Greece

The Ionian revolt was started in 499 BC by a Tyrant ruler of Miletus. Aristagoras gained control of the city in modern day Turkey during the reign of King Darius I of Persia. The former ruler of the city becoming an advisor to Darius. Though not recognized as the ruler of the city Aristagoras hoped that by helping to quell a revolt on the island of Naxos he would be granted that honor by the Persians. The plan failed however when he began quarreling with the admiral of the Persian fleet that was on its way to stop the rebellion.

Aristagoras after his alliances with the Persians fell apart began planning a revolt with other Ionian cities. After gaining the support of the citizen of Miletus and forming a democracy in the city which quickly spread to other Ionian cities Aristagoras went to Sparta and Athens to gain support for his rebellion from the Persians.

The Spartan King refused to help Aristagoras but the citizens of the Athenian democracy rallied around his cause and began fighting with him. While the Satrap of Lydia Artaphernes (who had previously been Aristagoras' main Persian ally) dispatched troops to attack Miletus, Aristagoras and the Athenians attacked Sardis where Artaphernes lived. While the Greeks weren't able to take the city they were able to plunder it and eventually burnt it to the ground.

It is from the burning of Sardis by the Athenians that prompted Darius I to pay attention to the Greeks. It is rumored that 3 times a day he had a servant whisper into his ear "remember the Athenians".

The rebellion gained strength after the burning of Sardis though the size and strength of the Persian army quickly managed to put it down. The rebellion came to an end after only 6 years after Miletus was captured. Aristagoras however after realizing the hopeless position he was in fled to the relative safety of Thrace, after attempting to establish a colony though he was kill by the Thracians.

A Brief History of the Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian war which lasted from 431-404 BC was a war primarily between the Athenians and Spartans that enveloped the Greek city-states and lead to the downfall of Athens.

The war is generally divided by historians into three phases, the first of which called the Archidamian war was comprised of a series of invasions on Attica by the Spartans while Athens took advantage of its Naval superiority to launch coastal raids on cities sympathetic to the Spartans. This part of the war lasted for tens years and is acknowledged to have ended in 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias.

In 415 BC however Athens attempted an invasion of Syracuse in Sicily. The massive expedition ended in disaster for Athens and ushered in the final phase of the war in 413BC. This last phase of the Peloponnesian war known by several different names including the Ionian war saw Persia joining forces with the Spartans to undermine the Athenian empire by encouraging rebellions in its subject states.

The Peloponnesian war devastated most of the Greek city states. Athens as almost completely devastated and most Greeks were reduced to extreme poverty. Though Sparta may have won the war and gained Hegemony over the Greek world and parts of what was Persia. This victory did not last for very long without the infusion of what had been Athens great culture and Sparta was eventually destroyed.

Greece was nearly destroyed and what had been civilized before the war was now thrown back to a more primal and violent culture of survival.

Pericles

Pericles who lived from 495-429 BC was one of ancient Athens greatest leaders. He is said to have been first among the citizens of Athens for more than 40 years during its period of direct democracy. A populist leader Pericles had opposition such as Cimon ostracized while promoting the rights of the poor in Athens, who were the vast majority of citizens in Athens.

Pericles was one of the wealthiest men in Athens and on occasion made it a point to show others this fact for political gain. Such as when he sponsored a play depicting the triumphant victory at Salamis of Themistocles whom Pericles was a supporter.

Pericles set about making social changes in Athens that finally ended the aristocratic institutions of Athens which Solon had begun more than a hundred years before.

Pericles also began the process of turning Athens into an empire. Using the institutions of the Delian league he turn allies into subjects. Where once the other members of the Delian league gave military service in defense of Greece they now sent gold and silver instead.

To those who asked what this tribute was being spent on Pericles only responded that they should notice they were safe. With the money gained through tribute by the Delian league Pericles set about on a construction boom in Athens. In fact most of the surviving monuments on the acropolis in Athens were built during the rule of Pericles.

Pericles promoted the arts and literature setting the stage for Athens to become the cultural and educational center of the ancient Greek world.

Pericles is also held responsible for inciting the Peloponnesian war, which Athens lost to the Spartans almost 30 years later in 404BC.

Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great lived from 356-323 BC son of Phillip II of Macedon and his fourth polygamous wife Olympia a princess of Epirus. Olympia not being a “true” Macedonian resulted in succession problems which often resulted in violent confrontations between Phillip and Alexander.

In 336 BC Phillip was assassinated by a disgraced male lover of his. It is often rumored though that Alexander was in some way complicit to the murder. After Phillip’s death the coalitions he created began to collapse. Alexander had inherited the finest army in the world from his father and was going to use it. Alexander is the first king to earn the title of “The Great” because of the military accomplishments he made in his short life.

Alexander the Great build what was at that time and for many generations later the largest empire that the world had known. Stretching as far east as Punjab in India. It was Alexander’s plan to head all the way to what he knew as The Great Outer Sea. Which we now know as the Pacific ocean before turning his armies around and conquering the Mediterranean.

Alexander died before he could accomplish his goals. It is possible that he was poisoned during a night of heavy drinking in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon or simply malaria at the age of 33. Alexander died barely able to even speak, when asked who it should be to succeed him his reply may have had one of several different meanings. Alexander is most often thought to have replied “to the strongest” although it is possible that he had said the name of one of is generals Craterus who’s name is only one syllable different. His life was short but he was well educated Aristotle was in fact one of his tutors and had been called upon by Phillip to teach his son because of his renown as the greatest philosopher of his day.

After Alexander’s death for unclear reasons. His generals met in Babylon to divide his empire among themselves. One of his Generals, Ptolemy, become the new ruler of Egypt and was father to Cleopatra of Egypt seducer of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

Athens Early Path To Democracy

The history of Athens begins with a Neolithic fortification on what is now known as the acropolis or “high city”. This high, easily defendable position was the anchor that has kept civilization in Athens for more than 3000 years. Athens can be looked at as the gate-way through which the cultural advances of Mesopotamia first enter Greece and then the whole of Europe. Earning Athenian culture the distinction as the beginning of western civilization.

Athens is surrounded by fertile river dales, the Aegean sea and several mountains. In ancient times the city was contained within a wall for defense and covered approximately 4 square kilometers. It is from this humble beginning that one of the oldest and most influential cities in European history began.

The Athenians did not conquer their surrounding neighbors by force but by a process of cynicisms, or the bringing together into one home. Athens is generally acknowledged for being the first democracy in the world but this is not entirely true. Only male citizens of a particular social class were allowed to hold political office. Making Athenian democracy more of an oligarchy. Athenian democracy was its greatest under Pericles’ rule.

Athens greatest strength though was its commerce. The sea not only brought boats carrying goods for trade but also it brought the Greeks ideas for foreign cultures. Athens is so well known by modern people simply because they were the ones who decided to write the most. Culture art, theater, music. All of these things were seen as part of the greatness of man. While the Spartans tried to maintain their warrior ways Athenians tried to get a more rounded life experience.

Of the many great names to come from Athens it was Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes who brought about the social changes that lead to Athenian democracy. Before Solon, Draco was tasked with creating a set of laws that would calm the social system in Athens. But these laws, where we get the term draconian from, failed to calm the unrest setting the stage for Solon. When Solon’s changes failed his cousin seized power. It would take another hundred years before Athens was ready for its famous democracy to hold power effectively.

Cleisthenes made the most stable democracy that Athens had known by dividing up the 4 main tribes of Athens into 10 new tribes or electorates, which in turn chose leaders among themselves. Creating less social division and allowing for a greater feeling of ease with Athens' social structure.

Brief History of Sparta

Sparta is located strategically located at the southern end of the Laconian plain. Guarded on three sides by mountains an in control of the Langhda pass, it’s only invasion point, Sparta was difficult to conquer. Except by the Spartans who defeated the Helots who had previously lived on the Laconian plain and forced them into serfdom to support their warrior way of life and culture.

Once their capitol city of Sparta(the city had previously existed, it was not the famous Spartan warrior culture we know of that Homer talks about in the Iliad) had been established the Spartans quickly began to take over all of the other cities on the Laconian plain as well as several seaports such as Gythium which made it difficult for invaders to blockade the Spartans into submission.

It was during the Peloponnesian war(431-404BC) with Athens that Sparta became not only the greatest infantry fighting peoples of Greece but also became masters of fighting at sea. The Spartan military not only conquered much of Greece but also invaded Anatolia, part of present day Turkey, which was controlled by the Persians. This Spartan hegemony which truly began after the Peloponnesian War was won by Spartan King Lysander did not last for very long. In exchange for financial help against revolting city states Sparta gave back the lands in Asia minor that it had conquered(386BC). Then in 371BC Thebes defeated Sparta in the battle of Leuctra.

The battle of Leuctra signaled the end of Spartan society. This was their first defeat on land with a fully ready army. After the Battle of Leuctra Spartans, who gained citizenship through bloodlines began to be overwhelmed by the numbers of Helots that worked their land. Collapsing in on themselves Spartan society began isolating itself from the rest of the world, including its greek neighbors. Philip of Macedon even when he formed his alliance of Greeks to fight the Persians left out the Spartans. And When his son Alexander the Great Conquered Persia and sent back a present to Athens of Persian armor his message accompanying the armor read “Alexander son of Philip, and the Greeks - except the Spartans - from the barbarians living in Asia”

A Brief History of Babylon

All that remains today of Babylon is a mound in the desert, a simple pile of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. Much to the consternation of religious zealots who are now forced to find a new Babylon to fulfill there joyous prophecies of doom. But atleast we know where it is and can begin to put together its true history.

Babylon was the religious center of the Babylonian Empire and later the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Starting as a small village some time in the 3rd millennium BC. Babylon grew in size and influence eventually becoming the namesake of not one but 2 ancient empires. But the exact origins of Babylon are not quite clear cut. The first leader of Akkad Sargon is supposed to have founded Babylon according to Sumerian texts but then many people who read the Bible literally believe that Babylon was founded by Nimrod. In reality the history of Babylon may be much more humble than either of these accounts.

What is known for sure is that it is Hammurabi who makes Babylon something more than another city-state in Mesopotamia. Several times between the time of Hammurabi and the birth of Christ Babylon was the largest city on earth. Babylon may have been the first city to be home to more than 200,000 people.

The Assyrians were the first foreign power to control Babylon approximately between 689 - 626 B.C. The Neo0Babylonian empire then took over control of the City under the leadership of Nabopolassar and it was his son Nebuchadnezzar II who had the famous hanging gardens of Babylon built to make his wife more comfortable. Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder though and the Hanging Gardens were not his only grand achievement. He is also known for the Ishtar gate, which still stands in the ruins of Babylon.

Years later Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon (539B.C.). The walls around Babylon were said to be impenetrable and Cyrus decided to use his cunning to capture the city instead of brute force. So, during a traditional feast in Babylon, Cyrus had his military engineers divert the flow of the Euphrates river so that his soldiers were able to walk under the river gates and invade the city without having to lay siege to the city for months.

Under Persian rule of Babylon the Jews were allowed to return to Israel and rebuild their temple. Babylon became a regional Capitol and the main administrative center of the Persian empire. Under the Persians Babylon continued to flourish and became a center for learning. Even after Persian rule began to forget about Babylon and the Babylonians themselves three times attempted to rebel Babylon remained under Persian rule.

It was not until the time of Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. Did Babylon change hands once more. When Alexander died several years later in 323 B.C. his generals met at the palace of Nebuchadnezzar to divide the territory conquered by Alexander. From this though Decades of wars began and nearly destroyed Babylon. While Babylon did survive until about 650 A.D. it never regained its glory and only survives today as piles of forgotten building and in the religious texts of various religions.

The Origins of Consciousness

I've added an amazon link to what I think is one of the most important books of the 20th century. The Origin of Consciousness In The Breakdown Of The Bicameral Mind by Julian Jaynes is a book that has largely been ignored simply because it can't be put into a single academic category.

In this blog I'm using it for the anthropological analysis of how different cultures approach the subject of religion as well as for its following the movements of various tribes and cultures during the end of the Holocene thermal optimum.

It includes translations of ancient texts from around the world. It uses illustrations of the layout of early human settlements to describe what different cultures "centered" their lives around.

I've come back to this book again and again when doing research for anthropology, sociology, linguistics, psychology, history and theology.

Jaynes follows the change of not only language but thought and culture through the Iliad, The Odyssey, The Bible, The Epic of Gilgamesh, as well as even Mesoamerican stories and writings.

Even if you don't buy Jaynes' argument on the origin of consciousness, his perspective on the history of human civilization as well as our current lives is intriguing. The historical records he brings to light and depth of this book might seem intimidating but the way in which he tells the story is suitable and within reach of even high school students.

Sumerian Culture

Sumerian is an umbrella term for the people who lived in ancient Mesopotamia and spoke the common Sumerian language. A language often compared to Basque and Iberian whose origin is unknown and just seems to pop onto the scene out of nowhere. Those people shaved their heads and wore tunics made of wool.

Although each city-state had its own patron god. The cities of Eridu and Nippur are considered to be the main religious and cultural centers of Sumerian life. Eridu was considered to be the home of the god Enki, who gave humanity art, science, industry and the manners for civilization. Nippur on the other hand was home to the god Enlil, who ruled the underworld and gave humanity spells and incantations.

The priest-kings of Sumer used corvee labor to build and maintain the irrigation canals that allowed Sumerian culture to thrive. It was not until late in Sumerian history though that the wealthy were allowed to exchange pieces of silver for their share of the labor necessary for the construction and maintenance of Sumerian infrastructure. In all my reading for this article I’ve only come across one source that claims that military warlords held social/political power in Sumerian culture, this source though backs its position up only with examples of later European cultures and a discussion of barbarian invasion.

The Sumerian military was very organized. Depictions of Sumerian battles reveal pictures of phalanx and chariots. Both of which are indicative of Sumerian city-states having professional warriors to defend themselves as well as attack enemies. Sumerian warriors were also familiar with siege warfare, many Sumerian cities having tall mud brick walls surrounding them for defense.

The people of Sumer had extensive trade relations with their neighbors. Cedar was imported from Lebanon, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan. It is possible that Sumerian merchants and traders ventured as far away as Egypt and Pakistan.

A Brief History of Sumer

The earliest known civilizations arouse in an area known as the "Fertile Crescent". The Fertile Crescent extends through what is now Iraq, Turkey, Syria and down into Israel. The Sumerian civilization occupying the current Iraq, between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

Sumer was a collection of City-States with a shared language and culture. In fact the first known written language, cuneiform, was developed by the Sumerian people.

Each city was built around a temple dedicated to the particular cities patron God. With the head priest acting as the governor of each city. The concept of the "divine right of kings" was not present in Sumerian culture. The "king" was the head priest and acted more as a superintendent for the god of the local area. These high priest kings were there to listen to the gods and relay their messages to the people.

The age of Sumer is extensive and accounts for a greater period of time than that of the current Christian era. Beginning in about 5300 BC with the Ubaid period which is known for its distinctive high quality painted pottery. Followed by the Uruk period beginning approximately 4500 BC.

The Uruk period sees the flowering of Sumerian bureaucracy and the use of slaves. Cities begin to grow and the specialization of labor takes place. Colonies are founded in distant lands. However when the climate began to shift around 3000 BC. destruction followed mass migrations and war are a major occurrence as the people struggle to find new ways to live as the climate changes. It is during this time that the Epic of Gilgamesh is supposed to have occurred.

The Dynastic period from 2900 BC to 2300 BC is noted for the list of supposed kings who ruled during this time. Many of which though appear to be fictional or mythological characters. Among them Gilgamesh himself (He gains immortality in the great Epic).

The Lagash Dynasty is the last of the ethnically Sumerian rulers of Sumer. As the Semitic peoples took over the land from the Sumerians they also eventually took over its leadership.

The Sumerian Akkadian empire begins with Sargon. The man how first unified the Semites and conquered Sumeria. From 2450-2250 the newcomers ruled over Sumer. They learned the language and writing of the Sumerian peoples and used it much like people of the middle ages used Latin, as a way of distinguishing themselves from other outside barbarians.

The Akkadian empire also finds itself destroyed by outsider though when the Gutian dynasty destabilizes the government in a guerrilla war and steps into its place in 2250 BC. The Guti however were not ready for the complexities of running an empire and Sumer soon found itself in what could be called a dark age as canals and other pieces of Sumerian infrastructure fell into disrepair. Famine followed and people died.

In 2150 a great governor emerged from Lagash and saved Sumer giving it new life and ushering in a new "Golden Age" where artistic development soared. This Sumerian Renaissance was short lived though and by 2000 BC Sumer was falling into the hands of what would become the Babylonian empire.

Why the human is shaped like it is.

As is often mentioned human beings, or Homo Sapien sapiens, are most closely related to the Great apes. The Great Apes including Chimpanzees, Gorillas, and Orangutangs. Modern humans share many similarities to them still, many people saying that they feel an almost human presense inside these animals.

The main difference between humans and the Great apes is our posture. Humans stand upright and this has several benefits. Living on the African savanna our ancestor species were able to spot danger from far away as well as food or water resources from much further than our competitor species. By standing well above the height of grasses they were able to survey much more of an area and exploit its resources.

Being bipedal we also gain the benefit of long distance endurance. It is not often noticed but people are capable of covering much larger distances using less energy than most other animals. Being omnivores, our ancestors probably sent out hunting parties that basically just had to chase animals until they no longer had enough energy to escape the hunters spears. Even today there are cultures which still use this form of hunting.

Standing upright also aided in the cooling of the pre-human body. With the chest facing outward instead of toward the ground more surface area of the body is available to dissipate heat through sweating. Or even obsorb light for warmth or vitamin D synthesis.

With the unique trait of walking on two legs combined with their omnivorous diet. Pre-humans and early humans had a distinct advantage. Yet it was not enough. As time went on brain capacity increased. A smarter omnivorous biped could make even more advantage of its surroundings. Remembering much larger territories and the locations of springs and patches of edible material. Eventually these creatures became the rulers of their domain.

While there is no widely accepted theory as to why man became a "naked" ape, that is a mostly hairless variety of ape. It may have made dealing with the climatic changes going on throughout our history less of a problem and allowing us to spread to almost every continent of our planet and establishing our dominance over the other species.

Neolithic Europe

The Neolithic period In Europe occurred roughly between 5,000 - 10,000 years ago. Spreading variably through time from the fertile crescent up into Greece and the Caucasus through Italy and Germany and eventually finding its way into Ireland. Where the first Neolithic communities are founded around 5000 B.C.

The Neolithic Period in human history can be determined by the presence of stone tools in particular axes and continues until the time of the first bronze instruments. Development of domesticated plants and animals as well as the introduction of pottery also mark the presence of Neolithic culture. The Neolithic period in Europe lasted between 3000-4000 years depending on region.

The process of the Neolithic revolution in Ireland specifically follows the pattern of pre-agricultural forest followed by land clearance. Signs of land clearance by Early Neolithic Irish can found in the rise in grass pollens, and decreasing elm. The agricultural phase is noted for the increase in different grass species as well as a decrease in tree pollen. After this period however there is a return of forests for nearly 400 years. The onset of agriculture then took over in 2500 B.C.

Agriculture is one of the major achievements of Neolithic culture. There is evidence for extensive field wall systems in some places. Plants domesticated and carried into Europe from southeast Asia include; einkorn, emmer, barley, and lentils. Another crop brought with people from east Asia was broomcorn millet.

During the Neolithic phase of cultural development people began to domesticate animals. “He was a huntsman turned herdsman of the herds he once hunted.” - H.G. Wells. Neolithic herdsman herded pigs, goat, sheep, and cattle. In some places these were kept in pens and other enclosures.

Pottery was another sign of Neolithic technology and culture. Although the potters wheel had not yet been invented, Neolithic pottery was made by hand and therefore regional pottery types or useful in distinguishing between Neolithic European cultures. At least 5 different cultures can be identified by the type of pottery they created. These include; Western Linear, Eastern Linear, Comb Ceramic, Printed Cardium, La Almagra.

Most Neolithic European settlements were small family based communities however in some parts of southeastern Europe there were large fortified cities of between 3000 to 4000 people. In England groups of 50-100 moved about with a herd of domesticated cattle.

Many proto-Europeans came to Europe through what is now Greece. Two groups arriving from Greece included the people of the black and grey pottery as well as The Thessalio and Danubian branch of immigrants. Italy seems to have been migrated to from the sea around it by the Mediterranean branch of proto-Europeans. Others also arrived via the straights of Gibraltar and what is now Ukraine.

Marija Gumbutas was a Lithuanian-American archeologist who studied Neolithic Europe and came up with what is called the “Kurgan Hypothesis” as well as coining the term “old Europe” to distinguish between the indo-European cultures and the pre-indo-European cultures that existed in Europe before the massive movements of people that occurred around 5000 B.C.
The Kurgan hypothesis basically states that groups of warlike, nomadic, patrilineal cultures came to Europe in the 4th century B.C. Whereas Pre-indo-Europeans had been peaceful Matrilineal and had a goddess centered religion. Some old European cultures included the Pelasgians, Minoans, Lelegas, Iberians, and the Basque. However cultures such as the people of the Black and Grey pottery were invaders from the other side of the Hellespont.

Gumbutas arrives at her conclusions using a wide variety of resources from linguistics and archeology to mythology and folklore. Gimbutas believed that there may have been a single pre-indo-European language based on the similarity of symbols found on Neolithic pottery from old Europe cultures as well as linguistic elements noticed among the different surviving old Europe cultures such as names and root words that seem to have a common ancestor language.

Surprisingly the boundaries around Neolithic cultures seems to be left mostly intact. The hearts of Germany, France, Italy and Spain are all in the same location and have only peripheral changes to the cultures borders. Even down into the Balkans and Greece cultural boundaries have not changed significantly well into the 21st century C.E. from the 4th century B.C.

The Early Earth

Before the story of man can be told it is important to start with a short history of the planet that has given birth to us. Earth is the planet that gave rise to the creature man and it is important to discribe the features of this planet to better explain why man is like man. Because as the arguement goes, "if things were different then things would be different".

Although no life has definitly been found on other planets in our solar system. Various findings by many different space exploration missions as well as the discovery of extremophile bacteria and archaea have hinted that the possibilty of life on other plantes is possible if not probable.

Our Earth however is much more friendly to life. Earth's tempurature, it's oceans, the strength of the magnetic fields and ozone layer all influence the great abundance of life here.

Our planet however was not always as hospitable to life as it is today. Earth is approximatly 4.6 billion years old as determined by the radioactive decay rate of uranium into lead present on earth.

During the Hadean eon, from 4.6 - 3.8 billion years ago, earth came together of the material spiralling around the sun. As the earth grew it is possible that something impacted the earth blowing away much of its early atmosphere forming the moon and setting into motion the volcanic activities present to this day. Life however had not formed on earth at this time.

As early as 4.2 billion years ago the oceans may have begun forming. The was much volcanic activity and the sky was full of ammonia, methane, water vapor, and carbon dioxide (co2). These chemicals reacting with each other in the early earth began to form amino acids and evetually pieces of DNA were formed. With more time some DNA molecules were formed with the ability to reproduce themselves interacting with the various amino acids and early proteins. And Life began.

With every new successful replication of every new kind of DNA new paths were formed. Families of self-replicating molecules developed as these lines grew larger they spread out from their original homes by wind and wave and found new niches to exploit for more chemicals to form even more of these self replicating molecules.

As volcanic activity formed the great ancient supercontinent of pangaea then tore it apart into the 7 continents we know of today, the various fault lines and volcanic hotspots. The families of self-replicating molecules conitnued to expand building itself a cell for protection and gathering those chemicals needed to conintue reproducing. Multi-celled organisms began to appear and finally plants and animals began aquiring the traits we use today to identify them.