A Brief History of Maps

Maps Of The World: Their Evolution Through The Ages by Lucien Oliveira

Cartography, or map-making, is an ancient "art". Archeologists have found maps of the world dating from pre-Christian eras. The earliest world maps discovered were made by the Babylonians. They were symbolic maps instead of literal representation, but they had already shown cardinal directions. These maps show how map-making was always very important to the human kind. Although they were not as far accurate as our modern maps of the world, they were still very significant to the civilisations that created them.

On history of cartography, you can even find local and regional maps drawn by indigenous people. Ancient Egyptians also produced maps, emphasizing geometry and surveying techniques to draw them. But the first world scale maps were made by the ancient Greek. They made speculations on Earth's size and shape, though, at first, they represented our planet as a circular flat disc. Ptolemy, a famous Greek philosopher, introduced several cartographic innovations and influenced several centuries to come. His world maps, nonetheless, were distorted in orientation and shape. Also, he made use of two other sciences to help on map-making: astronomy and mathematics. Furthermore, it was the Greek philosophers who first assumed that the Earth was spherical. They also made scientific estimates on Earth's circumference. In addition, it was Eratosthenes, another Greek philosopher, who made great achievements on this field. He created the concept of meridian and parallel, and was also the first to divide the Earth in five climate areas correctly.

European maps came a long way before becoming what they are now. In early Middle Ages, people still insisted on the concept that the Earth was a flat disc. It was in these ages that the mappae mundi were drawn. They consisted of four types of world maps: zonal maps (divided in five climate zones), tripartite (the three known continents), quadripartite (the three known continents and an equatorial ocean), and complex maps (tripartite showing more details such as cities and topography elements). Until Renaissance, there wasn't much improvement. But in this period, though, the discovery of the Americas and the need of controlling and dividing those lands encouraged surveys again.

In 1884, Greenwich prime meridian was defined as international standard reference, and in the 20th century, maps became quite abundant due to improvements in fields like printing and photography. As technology advances were made, cartography became a more complex science. First, we had brushes and parchment, but nowadays we can produce far more accurate maps of the world using discoveries such as compass, telescope, sextant, quadrant, vernier, printing press, etc. We also have a huge range of map types and styles. Apart from topographic and political world maps, we can have thematic maps on specific subjects which are oriented to specific audiences. Colors, symbols, the compass rose, legends, among others are largely used to make details easy to comprehend.

In conclusion, the maps of the world have gone a long journey to become what they are now but, with all these modern achievements, we can virtually have world maps displaying the surface of the Earth in any map projection we need.


Lucien Oliveira is a freelance writer with strong interest nature, environment and earth. You can find more on map of the world . Read more about world maps and animal tracking.

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History of The Cycladic Islands

Santorini History of the Cycladic Islands
By Fotis Pitsas

No one knows exactly when the Cyclades were first inhabited. From obsidian finds in the 8th millennium stratum on Milos and in Frankthi Cave in Hermioni (Argolid Peninsula), we can conclude that the Cyclades were already inhabited at that time.

It is generally believed that the Phoenicians and the Carians inhabited the Cyclades during prehistoric times. Later, the islands came under the Minoan sphere of influence.

They were then re-inhabited by the Carians, and finally colonized by the Ionians.

The most ancient settlement found in the Cyclades is on Saliagos, a small islet between Paros and Antiparos. The settlement dates from the beginning of the late Neolithic period, c. 4300-3900 BC.

The discovery in 1959 of surface traces of prehistoric habitation lead to excavations (1964-65), which were conducted by the British School of Archeology Stone figurines, anthropomorphic amulets, Milos pottery with white decoration, and hundreds of obsidian tools, arrowheads and votive offerings were unearthed in the excavations.

A fortification wall with a turret surrounded the settlement, which was made up of small residences. Archaeologists exposed three archaeological strata corresponding to three periods of habitation. Earliest known it is speculated that the settlement extended into sections that are now underwater. Moreover, it is likely that during that era Saliagos was part of Antiparos.

The large quantity of obsidian chips found on Saliagos is conclusive evidence that the islet was one of the early processing and trading stations for obsidian from Milos.

Obsidian, marble and emery were the raw materials used in the Cyclades to make both tools as well as artworks. In general, the Cycladic peoples had limited resources. This fact inspired them to utilize their ingenuity, to take advantage of what nature provided and to expand into new activities such as tool-making, shipping and trade.

Their economy was probably mixed combining farming, livestock raising, hunting and fishing, along with the exploitation of local raw materials.

Cycladic potters developed a technique of painting white designs on a dark back-ground. The pots, which are shaped like fruit bowls with a long leg, have white decoration on a dark back-ground. Most characteristic of the Neolithic period are the schematic marble figurines, the most famous of which is the so-called Fat Lady of Saliagos.

During the Bronze Age, Cycladic civilization produced works of art that are unique in the Aegean region. Cycladic idols, carved from local white marble, are regarded as refined works of mature, sophisticated artists.

By the early Bronze Age (3200-2200 BC) the Cyclades had developed an advanced culture that had extensive contact with the other player islands in the region.

Shipping had expanded, elevating trade and commerce to a primary position in the Cycladic economy and significantly influencing social development and change in the Aegean.

There is a long List of Greek islands including Cycladic Island-Mykonos and Cycladic island - Santorini.

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The Ionian Revolt, Why Persia Wanted to Conquer Greece

The Ionian revolt was started in 499 BC by a Tyrant ruler of Miletus. Aristagoras gained control of the city in modern day Turkey during the reign of King Darius I of Persia. The former ruler of the city becoming an advisor to Darius. Though not recognized as the ruler of the city Aristagoras hoped that by helping to quell a revolt on the island of Naxos he would be granted that honor by the Persians. The plan failed however when he began quarreling with the admiral of the Persian fleet that was on its way to stop the rebellion.

Aristagoras after his alliances with the Persians fell apart began planning a revolt with other Ionian cities. After gaining the support of the citizen of Miletus and forming a democracy in the city which quickly spread to other Ionian cities Aristagoras went to Sparta and Athens to gain support for his rebellion from the Persians.

The Spartan King refused to help Aristagoras but the citizens of the Athenian democracy rallied around his cause and began fighting with him. While the Satrap of Lydia Artaphernes (who had previously been Aristagoras' main Persian ally) dispatched troops to attack Miletus, Aristagoras and the Athenians attacked Sardis where Artaphernes lived. While the Greeks weren't able to take the city they were able to plunder it and eventually burnt it to the ground.

It is from the burning of Sardis by the Athenians that prompted Darius I to pay attention to the Greeks. It is rumored that 3 times a day he had a servant whisper into his ear "remember the Athenians".

The rebellion gained strength after the burning of Sardis though the size and strength of the Persian army quickly managed to put it down. The rebellion came to an end after only 6 years after Miletus was captured. Aristagoras however after realizing the hopeless position he was in fled to the relative safety of Thrace, after attempting to establish a colony though he was kill by the Thracians.

A Brief History of the Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian war which lasted from 431-404 BC was a war primarily between the Athenians and Spartans that enveloped the Greek city-states and lead to the downfall of Athens.

The war is generally divided by historians into three phases, the first of which called the Archidamian war was comprised of a series of invasions on Attica by the Spartans while Athens took advantage of its Naval superiority to launch coastal raids on cities sympathetic to the Spartans. This part of the war lasted for tens years and is acknowledged to have ended in 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias.

In 415 BC however Athens attempted an invasion of Syracuse in Sicily. The massive expedition ended in disaster for Athens and ushered in the final phase of the war in 413BC. This last phase of the Peloponnesian war known by several different names including the Ionian war saw Persia joining forces with the Spartans to undermine the Athenian empire by encouraging rebellions in its subject states.

The Peloponnesian war devastated most of the Greek city states. Athens as almost completely devastated and most Greeks were reduced to extreme poverty. Though Sparta may have won the war and gained Hegemony over the Greek world and parts of what was Persia. This victory did not last for very long without the infusion of what had been Athens great culture and Sparta was eventually destroyed.

Greece was nearly destroyed and what had been civilized before the war was now thrown back to a more primal and violent culture of survival.

Pericles

Pericles who lived from 495-429 BC was one of ancient Athens greatest leaders. He is said to have been first among the citizens of Athens for more than 40 years during its period of direct democracy. A populist leader Pericles had opposition such as Cimon ostracized while promoting the rights of the poor in Athens, who were the vast majority of citizens in Athens.

Pericles was one of the wealthiest men in Athens and on occasion made it a point to show others this fact for political gain. Such as when he sponsored a play depicting the triumphant victory at Salamis of Themistocles whom Pericles was a supporter.

Pericles set about making social changes in Athens that finally ended the aristocratic institutions of Athens which Solon had begun more than a hundred years before.

Pericles also began the process of turning Athens into an empire. Using the institutions of the Delian league he turn allies into subjects. Where once the other members of the Delian league gave military service in defense of Greece they now sent gold and silver instead.

To those who asked what this tribute was being spent on Pericles only responded that they should notice they were safe. With the money gained through tribute by the Delian league Pericles set about on a construction boom in Athens. In fact most of the surviving monuments on the acropolis in Athens were built during the rule of Pericles.

Pericles promoted the arts and literature setting the stage for Athens to become the cultural and educational center of the ancient Greek world.

Pericles is also held responsible for inciting the Peloponnesian war, which Athens lost to the Spartans almost 30 years later in 404BC.

Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great lived from 356-323 BC son of Phillip II of Macedon and his fourth polygamous wife Olympia a princess of Epirus. Olympia not being a “true” Macedonian resulted in succession problems which often resulted in violent confrontations between Phillip and Alexander.

In 336 BC Phillip was assassinated by a disgraced male lover of his. It is often rumored though that Alexander was in some way complicit to the murder. After Phillip’s death the coalitions he created began to collapse. Alexander had inherited the finest army in the world from his father and was going to use it. Alexander is the first king to earn the title of “The Great” because of the military accomplishments he made in his short life.

Alexander the Great build what was at that time and for many generations later the largest empire that the world had known. Stretching as far east as Punjab in India. It was Alexander’s plan to head all the way to what he knew as The Great Outer Sea. Which we now know as the Pacific ocean before turning his armies around and conquering the Mediterranean.

Alexander died before he could accomplish his goals. It is possible that he was poisoned during a night of heavy drinking in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon or simply malaria at the age of 33. Alexander died barely able to even speak, when asked who it should be to succeed him his reply may have had one of several different meanings. Alexander is most often thought to have replied “to the strongest” although it is possible that he had said the name of one of is generals Craterus who’s name is only one syllable different. His life was short but he was well educated Aristotle was in fact one of his tutors and had been called upon by Phillip to teach his son because of his renown as the greatest philosopher of his day.

After Alexander’s death for unclear reasons. His generals met in Babylon to divide his empire among themselves. One of his Generals, Ptolemy, become the new ruler of Egypt and was father to Cleopatra of Egypt seducer of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

Athens Early Path To Democracy

The history of Athens begins with a Neolithic fortification on what is now known as the acropolis or “high city”. This high, easily defendable position was the anchor that has kept civilization in Athens for more than 3000 years. Athens can be looked at as the gate-way through which the cultural advances of Mesopotamia first enter Greece and then the whole of Europe. Earning Athenian culture the distinction as the beginning of western civilization.

Athens is surrounded by fertile river dales, the Aegean sea and several mountains. In ancient times the city was contained within a wall for defense and covered approximately 4 square kilometers. It is from this humble beginning that one of the oldest and most influential cities in European history began.

The Athenians did not conquer their surrounding neighbors by force but by a process of cynicisms, or the bringing together into one home. Athens is generally acknowledged for being the first democracy in the world but this is not entirely true. Only male citizens of a particular social class were allowed to hold political office. Making Athenian democracy more of an oligarchy. Athenian democracy was its greatest under Pericles’ rule.

Athens greatest strength though was its commerce. The sea not only brought boats carrying goods for trade but also it brought the Greeks ideas for foreign cultures. Athens is so well known by modern people simply because they were the ones who decided to write the most. Culture art, theater, music. All of these things were seen as part of the greatness of man. While the Spartans tried to maintain their warrior ways Athenians tried to get a more rounded life experience.

Of the many great names to come from Athens it was Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes who brought about the social changes that lead to Athenian democracy. Before Solon, Draco was tasked with creating a set of laws that would calm the social system in Athens. But these laws, where we get the term draconian from, failed to calm the unrest setting the stage for Solon. When Solon’s changes failed his cousin seized power. It would take another hundred years before Athens was ready for its famous democracy to hold power effectively.

Cleisthenes made the most stable democracy that Athens had known by dividing up the 4 main tribes of Athens into 10 new tribes or electorates, which in turn chose leaders among themselves. Creating less social division and allowing for a greater feeling of ease with Athens' social structure.