Ancient Sparta - The True History of Leonidas and Thermopylae
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Martyn_Shuttleworth]Martyn Shuttleworth
THE ANCIENT SPARTANS
Ancient Sparta is a name that everybody knows and recognises. The bravery of Leonidas and the 300 are the heroic basis of myriad Hollywood blockbusters. The betrayal of Menelaos, by beautiful Helen of Troy, is enshrined in glorious Homeric myth and legend. Documentaries and books portray the brutal military regime, and the abhorrent practice of exposing weak infants in the harsh Taygetos Mountains.
As any local in the modern town will tell you, the reality of Spartan society was very different from the modern perceptions. The society of the Ancient Spartans was surprisingly sophisticated, their culture as rich as any other city in Ancient Greece.
BEGINNINGS
Surprisingly to some, the history of the Ancient Spartans does not begin with the Homeric Trojan War. The realm of Menelaos and Helen existed nearly a century before the dawn of historical Ancient Sparta. This was an older civilization, semi-mythical even to the Dorian Spartans of Leonidas. Some authorities believe that the kingdom of Menelaos, known as Lakedaimon, was based at nearby Ancient Pellanas, not Sparta.
Excavations there are ongoing, but are yet to find concrete evidence of any palace. The historical Sparta of Leonidas begins with the Dorian Greek invasion. Tribes migrating from north-eastern Greece displaced the 'long-haired' Achaean Greeks of Homeric legend.
The rise of Ancient Sparta began in about 750 BC, when the emerging Spartan state systematically subdued the populations of the surrounding areas. The nearby village of Amyclae was incorporated into the original four settlements and Messinia was invaded, the population subjugated as helots. These were not quite slaves, but had few rights and were forced to farm the land, giving half of the produce to Sparta.
The lands of Messinia were parceled out to Spartan warrior-citizens, known as Spartiates. During this period, the Spartan constitution was formulated, and the state elected two kings, ruling alongside a council of elders and demos of male citizens. Helots and inhabitants of outlying areas, the Perioikoi, were denied a vote. This is very similar to the 'democracy' of Athens, where only the richest males had the right to vote.
THE RISE OF ANCIENT SPARTA
Between 680 and 660 BC, the Spartan army adopted the hoplite method of fighting, which would become the mainstay of their tactics for many centuries. In 669, the army suffered a reverse against the neighbouring Argives, and had to put down a Messinian revolt in the 650's. Despite this, the reform continued and the revolt was crushed, within ten years. Finally, Messinia was completely conquered and Sparta began to look further afield.
The famous laws of Lycurgus were crafted to stabilise the society and were impressed into the psyche of all Spartans. Military training became compulsory for all citizen males; from the age of seven, their lives were dictated by unbreakable rules. The Messinian Helots provided food, and the Perekoi became the craftsmen and merchants, allowing Ancient Sparta to establish a professional army. The constant training and hardening, by beatings, austere conditions and rigid selection, led to a highly trained and elite fighting force, devoted entirely to the law.
The whole system discouraged the gathering of wealth into a few hands, avoiding material imbalances that could lead to tyranny, coups or revolts. The use of professional troops, against the part-time hoplites of other Greek states, was the major factor in the growing Spartan dominance. By the middle of the 6th century, Ancient Sparta had conquered its near neighbours and was the dominant power in the Peloponnesian league, a major player in Greek politics.
THE PERSIAN EXPANSION
Throughout the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire gradually developed. Starting as a loose confederation of tribes in modern day Iran, it grew and dominated the Middle and Near East. The great cities of Babylon, Memphis and Susa, fell to the well equipped and well drilled army of Cyrus the Great. By 512 the new king, Darius, overran the Greek cities in Asia Minor and began to influence their politics.
After a failed revolt by these cities, in 494, King Xerxes of Persia decided to punish the Greeks, especially the Athenians, key supporters of this Ionian revolt. Xerxes invaded, but the resulting Battle of Marathon saw defeat at the hands of the Athenians and their allies. Ancient Sparta declined to send an army until their religious ceremonies were over, by which time the battle was won.
480 BC saw the pinnacle of Spartan history, the Battle of Thermopylae, a name that has echoed down through history. Despite the subsequent overestimation of Persian numbers and the underestimation of Greek numbers, it was still an act of steadfast bravery. Thermopylae was an awesome display of Spartan prowess, courage and strength.
The Persian king, Xerxes, timed his invasion to coincide with religious festivals, preventing many of the Greek city states from sending armies. Despite this, many states sent small contingents, including the famous 300 Spartans under Leonidas, the overall General. The Greek forces probably numbered about 7000, and the Persian force up to 250 000 men, a vast difference in strength.
After four days of waiting for the Greeks to accept terms and disperse, Xerxes sent in his first wave of troops, demanding annihilation of the Greeks. Here his plan faltered; the terrain funnelled his army onto a narrow front and neutralised the effect of numbers. The superior training and morale of the Ancient Spartan phalanxes held the 'Hot Gates', and the initial assault was cut to pieces. The next day saw an assault by the elite 10 000 immortals, but they were also forced back, in shame.
The course of the battle now swung against the Greek forces. The infamous traitor, Ephialtes, led a force of 40 000 Persians along a goat path, bringing them around the rear of the Greeks. The guarding force of 1000 Phocians fled, and the encirclement of the advance force was almost complete. Hearing of this, Leonidas dismissed the Greek allies, leaving only the 300 Spartans, 900 Messinian Helots and 700 Thespian volunteers. They made a last stand on a hill behind the pass, dying to a man and inspiring generals for centuries.
One year later, at Platea, 10 000 Ancient Spartan warriors, part of a force of about 45 000 hoplites, and an uncertain number of light troops, defeated a huge Persian force. This, along with the victory of the Athenian navy in the battle of Salamis, crushed Persian hopes forever. They never again invaded Greece and their focus shifted to using their wealth and prestige to influence Greek politics.
THE PELOPONNESIAN WARS
The end of the fifth century BC saw the uneasy alliance between Athens and Ancient Sparta, the two major powers in Greece, break down. At first, there was no outright declaration of war, but the two city states began playing the political game, wrangling and manipulating their allies. Athens exerted pressure on the city of Corinth and its colonies in Sicily, establishing its own outposts on that island. Corinth, alarmed by this, turned to Sparta for help, and threatened to leave the Peloponnesian League.
The Athenians also intrigued against another city, Megara, neighbour of Corinth, by restricting their rights to trade in Athens. Pressure built and war broke out, becoming a battle of attrition. Despite the superior initial strength of the Spartan armies, the strong defensive walls and powerful navy of Athens forced a stalemate.
By 421 BC both cities were feeling the strain upon their treasuries and armies. An uneasy truce was called, lasting until 415, when the Athenians suffered a major defeat whilst attempting to conquer Sicily. Despite this, Ancient Sparta failed to take advantage of this reversal and again offered peace. This was gratefully accepted and lasted until 404 BC. For a while, Sparta was the dominant force in the Eastern Mediterranean, but never fully exploited its position.
Persian gold equipped a new Spartan fleet, which crushed the Athenian navy in the Hellespont. Athens had no option but to surrender, and the Spartan terms were harsh. Athens had to tear down its walls and disband its fleet.
Martyn lives in the beautiful Peloponnese area of Greece and is absorbing the philosophy buried deep within the bones of the land.
He specializes in science and philosophy articles.
Please find the original article at http://www.eccentric-englishman.com
Martyn's website is at http://www.amethyst-web.net
Please also visit experiment-resources.com for some of his other articles
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Martyn_Shuttleworth http://EzineArticles.com/?Ancient-Sparta---The-True-History-of-Leonidas-and-Thermopylae&id=1520920
Wednesday, September 9, 2009
Wednesday, August 26, 2009
A Look at the Ancient Vedic Civilization Through the Vedas
A Look at the Ancient Vedic Civilization Through the Vedas
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand]Victor Epand
Individuals can read about the ancient vedic civilizations that were associated with the India and Hindu societies through many vedic books that are now available on the market today. These books will give individuals a much more in dept look at these marvelous civilizations of old.
These ancient civilizations can be traced all the back to the very first millennium and classical forms of Hinduism have been found dating back to the six century. This period of time in India is known as the Vedic age, which consisted of the rise of Mahajanapadas who was succeeded by the age of Hinduism and the Sanskrit literature. Also included during the Vedic age was the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India as well.
The most archaic of any vedic texts that have been preserved are known as the Rigveda, which is also called the Veda. It is thought that its creation must have taken place over several centuries and was thought to be completed around three-thousand BC. Ultimately, the Rigveda is a collection of dedicated hymns and chants to the gods that are spread throughout ten books. However, there are over seventy-five original mantras that were not mentioned in the Rigveda simply because these mantras had to go through several different linguistic changes.
Another sacred text and one of the four basic Vedas, which is often called the fourth Veda, is known as the Atharvaveda. The Atharvaveda was composed by two groups known as the Bhrigus and the Khilani. The third basic Veda is known as the Samaveda and is the ancient core of Hindu scriptures. Another of the four basic Vedas is known as the Yajurveda and is more of a Hindu Veda text. It is thought that this vedic text was composed during the Samhita period. The vedic culture make the political shift from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges. The mood of this time was an injunctive that was characterized by the Sanskrit. Aorist is a term that in used in certain Indo-European languages that refer to particular grammer tenses and aspects of the Yajurveda. The last of the four basic Vedas is the Brahmana and is the oldest of these four basic Veda text. These religious scriptures focus on sacrifices of horses mostly. Another part of the ancient scriptures that focus on philosophy, meditation, and nature.
The Indo-Aryan migration and the Gandhara Grave culture are related to the cultures that remain controversial and politically charged in ancient Indian society, which often lead to disputes on the history of vedic culture. In the Rigveda, which is a collection of religious hymns is a variety of myths and stories throughout the first ten books. The oldest hymns can be found in books two through seven. Book nine of the Rigveda, which is often called the Soma Mandala, contain elements that were inherited from the pre-vedic period of the common Indo-Iranian society.
The Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists that had been subdivided into villages where each are headed by a tribal chief. These societies were characterized by rural lifestyles where cattle rearing was the primary occupation. To the people of these societies cattle and cows were held in high esteem, which is the reason they frequently appear in many of the mantra hymns and chants. Goddesses were often compared to cows and the gods were compared to bulls. There agriculture grew much more prominent with time as the community settled down. The people had to barter with cattle and other such valuables, which replaced financial commerce.
Victor Epand is an expert consultant about used books, autographed books, and Vedic books. When shopping for books, we recommend only the best bookstores for [http://www.usedbooksell.com]used books, [http://www.sellautographedbooks.com]autographed books.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand http://EzineArticles.com/?A-Look-at-the-Ancient-Vedic-Civilization-Through-the-Vedas&id=1551216
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand]Victor Epand
Individuals can read about the ancient vedic civilizations that were associated with the India and Hindu societies through many vedic books that are now available on the market today. These books will give individuals a much more in dept look at these marvelous civilizations of old.
These ancient civilizations can be traced all the back to the very first millennium and classical forms of Hinduism have been found dating back to the six century. This period of time in India is known as the Vedic age, which consisted of the rise of Mahajanapadas who was succeeded by the age of Hinduism and the Sanskrit literature. Also included during the Vedic age was the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India as well.
The most archaic of any vedic texts that have been preserved are known as the Rigveda, which is also called the Veda. It is thought that its creation must have taken place over several centuries and was thought to be completed around three-thousand BC. Ultimately, the Rigveda is a collection of dedicated hymns and chants to the gods that are spread throughout ten books. However, there are over seventy-five original mantras that were not mentioned in the Rigveda simply because these mantras had to go through several different linguistic changes.
Another sacred text and one of the four basic Vedas, which is often called the fourth Veda, is known as the Atharvaveda. The Atharvaveda was composed by two groups known as the Bhrigus and the Khilani. The third basic Veda is known as the Samaveda and is the ancient core of Hindu scriptures. Another of the four basic Vedas is known as the Yajurveda and is more of a Hindu Veda text. It is thought that this vedic text was composed during the Samhita period. The vedic culture make the political shift from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges. The mood of this time was an injunctive that was characterized by the Sanskrit. Aorist is a term that in used in certain Indo-European languages that refer to particular grammer tenses and aspects of the Yajurveda. The last of the four basic Vedas is the Brahmana and is the oldest of these four basic Veda text. These religious scriptures focus on sacrifices of horses mostly. Another part of the ancient scriptures that focus on philosophy, meditation, and nature.
The Indo-Aryan migration and the Gandhara Grave culture are related to the cultures that remain controversial and politically charged in ancient Indian society, which often lead to disputes on the history of vedic culture. In the Rigveda, which is a collection of religious hymns is a variety of myths and stories throughout the first ten books. The oldest hymns can be found in books two through seven. Book nine of the Rigveda, which is often called the Soma Mandala, contain elements that were inherited from the pre-vedic period of the common Indo-Iranian society.
The Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists that had been subdivided into villages where each are headed by a tribal chief. These societies were characterized by rural lifestyles where cattle rearing was the primary occupation. To the people of these societies cattle and cows were held in high esteem, which is the reason they frequently appear in many of the mantra hymns and chants. Goddesses were often compared to cows and the gods were compared to bulls. There agriculture grew much more prominent with time as the community settled down. The people had to barter with cattle and other such valuables, which replaced financial commerce.
Victor Epand is an expert consultant about used books, autographed books, and Vedic books. When shopping for books, we recommend only the best bookstores for [http://www.usedbooksell.com]used books, [http://www.sellautographedbooks.com]autographed books.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Victor_Epand http://EzineArticles.com/?A-Look-at-the-Ancient-Vedic-Civilization-Through-the-Vedas&id=1551216
Tuesday, August 25, 2009
Cyprus History - Cradle of Civilizations
Cyprus History - Cradle of Civilizations
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates]Ozlem Canates
The name of the island was noticed in the written history during the period of the Roman Empire, which conquered the island from the successors of Alexander the Great. It is also known that, far before them, the civilization of Egypt and their arch rivals, the Hittites also arrived in the island. Phoenicians, a seafaring tribe, also took control of the island for a certain period of time. After 395 AD, the year of the split of the Roman Empire, Cyprus remained under the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Era had left numerous long-lasting traces in Cyprus.
Following the six-year rule of Isaac Comnenos, who seized control of the island upon the weakening of the Byzantine Rule, Cyprus fell under the influence of the Crusaders. Richard the Lion Heart, probably the best known of all the legendary kings who set foot on Cyprus, invaded Cyprus during a crusade to Jerusalem, with the aim of having a rest and tasting the wine of the island that was on everyone's tongue.
The island went through its brightest periods under the reign of the Lusignan dynasty after Templar Knights who bought the island from King Richard the Lion Heart. With the weakening of the Lusignans, Venetians seized the control of the island. Venetians used the island as a commercial base, leaving behind, at the same time, quite a good number of architecturally impressive works.
Ottoman armies and navy began to conquer the island in 1570 and because of the one-year resistance put up by Famagusta, accepted as one of the most important castle-cities of the period, the conquest was completed in one year.
As a reflection of the anti-colonialist movement that dominated the world after the Second World War, the Greek Cypriot independence movement was launched in 1955, which was opposed by Turkish Cypriots because of its intention of annexing Cyprus to Greece. In the aftermath of this, in 1959; Britain, Turkey and Greece signed the Zurich Agreement that provided for the establishment of a new state in Cyprus and thus the Republic of Cyprus was founded in 1960. this new republic lasted for three years only, owing to the Greek Cypriot attempts to master the state. In 1974, attempts to overthrow President Makarios and unite the island entirely with Greece by the nationalist forces who obtained support of the military junta in Greece was faced by the military intervention of Turkey.
Following the Turkish Army's Peace Operation in the northern part of Cyprus and setting up a control, Turks were assembled in the north and Greeks in the south and thus the island was physically divided into two. While the Greek Cypriots refused to establish a new state and claimed the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots who gathered in the north established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983.
Republic of Cyprus that had been turned into a de facto Greek state in the south of Cyprus still maintains its UN and EU membership today and recognition on behalf of all Cyprus. However, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, constituted by the Turkish Cypriots, is recognized only by Turkey. Though the parties are still carrying out long-standing negotiations on the Cyprus conflict that has been going on almost half a century, they have not managed to achieve a compromise settlement. At these negotiations while the Greek Cypriot side argues for a return to pre-1974 conditions, the Turkish Cypriot side insists on the establishment of a new state on the basis of the state of affairs that has emerged after 1974.
The information for North Cyprus Traveler: [http://www.a1cyprus.com]Best Rates North Cyprus Holidays
Added by Ozzi
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates http://EzineArticles.com/?Cyprus-History---Cradle-of-Civilizations&id=2631387
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates]Ozlem Canates
The name of the island was noticed in the written history during the period of the Roman Empire, which conquered the island from the successors of Alexander the Great. It is also known that, far before them, the civilization of Egypt and their arch rivals, the Hittites also arrived in the island. Phoenicians, a seafaring tribe, also took control of the island for a certain period of time. After 395 AD, the year of the split of the Roman Empire, Cyprus remained under the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Era had left numerous long-lasting traces in Cyprus.
Following the six-year rule of Isaac Comnenos, who seized control of the island upon the weakening of the Byzantine Rule, Cyprus fell under the influence of the Crusaders. Richard the Lion Heart, probably the best known of all the legendary kings who set foot on Cyprus, invaded Cyprus during a crusade to Jerusalem, with the aim of having a rest and tasting the wine of the island that was on everyone's tongue.
The island went through its brightest periods under the reign of the Lusignan dynasty after Templar Knights who bought the island from King Richard the Lion Heart. With the weakening of the Lusignans, Venetians seized the control of the island. Venetians used the island as a commercial base, leaving behind, at the same time, quite a good number of architecturally impressive works.
Ottoman armies and navy began to conquer the island in 1570 and because of the one-year resistance put up by Famagusta, accepted as one of the most important castle-cities of the period, the conquest was completed in one year.
As a reflection of the anti-colonialist movement that dominated the world after the Second World War, the Greek Cypriot independence movement was launched in 1955, which was opposed by Turkish Cypriots because of its intention of annexing Cyprus to Greece. In the aftermath of this, in 1959; Britain, Turkey and Greece signed the Zurich Agreement that provided for the establishment of a new state in Cyprus and thus the Republic of Cyprus was founded in 1960. this new republic lasted for three years only, owing to the Greek Cypriot attempts to master the state. In 1974, attempts to overthrow President Makarios and unite the island entirely with Greece by the nationalist forces who obtained support of the military junta in Greece was faced by the military intervention of Turkey.
Following the Turkish Army's Peace Operation in the northern part of Cyprus and setting up a control, Turks were assembled in the north and Greeks in the south and thus the island was physically divided into two. While the Greek Cypriots refused to establish a new state and claimed the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots who gathered in the north established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983.
Republic of Cyprus that had been turned into a de facto Greek state in the south of Cyprus still maintains its UN and EU membership today and recognition on behalf of all Cyprus. However, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, constituted by the Turkish Cypriots, is recognized only by Turkey. Though the parties are still carrying out long-standing negotiations on the Cyprus conflict that has been going on almost half a century, they have not managed to achieve a compromise settlement. At these negotiations while the Greek Cypriot side argues for a return to pre-1974 conditions, the Turkish Cypriot side insists on the establishment of a new state on the basis of the state of affairs that has emerged after 1974.
The information for North Cyprus Traveler: [http://www.a1cyprus.com]Best Rates North Cyprus Holidays
Added by Ozzi
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ozlem_Canates http://EzineArticles.com/?Cyprus-History---Cradle-of-Civilizations&id=2631387
Wednesday, August 19, 2009
Cleopatra - The Last Egyptian Pharaoh
Cleopatra - The Last Egyptian Pharaoh
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt]Russell Shortt
Cleopatra! What a life! What a woman! What a nose! Like all the greats, she is known to one and all simply by the one name. Her's was a life that was set to dominate world events in the most dramatic of fashions. I blame the parents, from the day she graced the world with her presence, she was informed that she was a goddess, she believed herself to be divine. There were going to be stormy waters ahead. She was the first of the great Divas, her modern sisters Beyonce, Britney and Mariah pale in comparison. Perhaps she influenced them, but she took her influence from the gods themselves, using Isis and Aphrodite as her blueprints. Reinventing herself more than Madonna, Cleopatra was her own best publicist/historian, she had a mood and a costume for every occasion, enchanting the masses with mighty pageantry.
She is one of the most enduring figures in history, yet she is also one of the most elusive. Bizarrely and maddeningly, we still do not know what she actually looked like. Her beauty is feted but other accounts assert her to be beautiful as opposed to a beauty, we have no idea, we are not even certain whether she looked Greek or Egyptian. Much of the blame for the lack of sources can be apportioned to Octavian who ordered that all images of her be destroyed, he also spread tales about her which blurs the line between fact and fiction regarding her.
We know it began hairy, her beauty was a product of the union of a brother and sister, dodgy beginnings to say the least. At the tender age of eighteen, Cleopatra became joint monarch of Egypt along with her twelve year old brother, Ptolemy XIII who she bizarrely later married. Cleopatra didn't like to share anything, she attempted to depose of her younger brother/husband, but in the end it was her who was left fleeing the country with her younger sister. Gone but not for good, she spent her exile in the desert rallying Arab tribes to her cause. Meanwhile, however things were going a tad pear shaped back in Alexandria for Ptolemy XIII. Four thousand Roman legionnaires arrived in the port, led by none other than Julius Caesar himself. Ptolemy fled lively, Julius moved into the palace and began doling out orders. Cleopatra however, was not going to be so easily jilted; famously she smuggled her way into the palace in a rolled carpet. As it was unfurled, the beautiful Cleopatra gracefully emerged, capturing an audience with Caesar and his heart. Ptolemy was understandably rather furious; he had lost his sister, co-ruler, wife and kingdom. He waged war on Alexandria, it proved to be a rash decision, he lost the war and found himself at the bottom of the Nile.
Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt, albeit with serious Roman backing. Caesar believed that he would be able to use her as a puppet, he had obviously not really got to know her that well. She willingly married her eleven year old brother, Ptolemy XIV to appease the Alexandrian lobby whilst at the same time becoming pregnant in a hurry by Caesar. Their son, Ptolemy Caesar was born in 47 BCE, he became better known as Caesarion meaning Little Caesar. The little guy was something of a pawn between the two, Cleopatra realised that she required the support of Rome to keep her in control of Egypt, while Caesar had seen at first hand how the Egyptian people worshipped Cleopatra, that together they could unite Rome and Egypt and that Little Caesar would rule the whole shebang. However, it definitely was not solely a marriage of convenience, for Caesar brought his mistress back to Rome, although it shocked society, for Caesar was already married. He established her in his home, where she lived in rather a rock and roll fashion. She fashioned herself as the new Isis, refused to worship Roman gods, lived in opulence and basically scandalized Rome. The celebrity couple's exuberance was cut short however, with the assassination of Julius in 44 BCE by a conspiracy of Roman senators. Cleopatra fled Rome with the four year old Caesarion. She was in a perilous position, Caesar had not made any provisions for her, she returned to an Egypt that was ravaged by plague and famine. But Cleopatra was nothing if not capable, she quickly set about murdering her brother Ptolemy XIV and establishing herself and her cherished Little Caesar as co-regents.
In the wake of Julius Caesar's assassination, Rome was flung into a bloody battle of succession with Mark Antony's Second Triumvirate (consisting of he, Octavian and Lepidua) emerging victorious. He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in modern day Turkey under the dubious pretext of quizzing her about her loyalty. Cleopatra seized upon the opportunity, she arrived in the port of Tarsus with a magnificent fleet, sporting silver oars and purple sails. Cleopatra ensured that she made maximum impact, dressed as Aphrodite, being fanned by Erotes clad boys and Neried handmaidens. It worked, Mark Antony was bowled over, falling deeply in love with the Egyptian Queen. Cleopatra had marked him well, he was fond of wine and women, was vain, setting himself up as Dionysus and claiming to be ancestor of Hercules. The meeting became more than the cementing of a political alliance, it burgeoned into a marriage of two gods, their union would indeed change the order of the universe. Once again, Cleopatra brought the most powerful man in Rome back to Alexandria, once again he did favours for her (including killing her sister Aristone) and once again she fell pregnant quickly, giving birth to twins in 40 BCE, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene.
Mark Antony though had learnt well from the mistakes of Julius Caesar, he returned to his wife, Fulvia in Rome, leaving Cleopatra in Egypt, the two would not meet again for four years. Fulvia brought her own problems however, she had fallen foul of Octavian, but somewhat fortunately she died, giving Mark Anthony the opportunity to patch things ups with Octavian by marrying his sister, Octavia Minor. However, it was obvious that Mark Anthony was still quite smitten by Cleopatra, for when he went to war with the Parthians, he sent for her to meet him at Antioch. They exchanged gifts, Mark Anthony giving Cleopatra huge tracts of land while she opened up her bounteous coffers to him. In the subsequent war however, Mark Antony was fairly battered, he fell into the open and protective arms of Cleopatra, returning to Egypt with her in 35BCE, spurning Octavia who remained loyal to him and making Octavian furious. The die was cast, Mark Antony decided there was no going back, he married Cleopatra and at the Donations of Alexandria he began doling out parts of the Eastern Roman Empire between her and her children. Cleopatra never one to be behind the door, began to set her sights on becoming Empress of the world.
However, Octavian beat the lard out of Mark Antony at Actium in Greece and then pursued his retreating forces into Egypt. Mark Antony, believing Cleopatra to be dead, killed himself; Cleopatra followed suit a few days later preferring death than to see the Romans march victoriously through the streets of Alexandria. To the end she remained enchanting, calling for an asp to be brought to her, the Egyptian religion proclaimed that death by a snakebite would secure immortality. Her death marked the end of the Egyptian Monarchs, and so a culture that had spanned thousands of years ended, Egypt was conquered and inaugurated as a province into the Eastern Roman Empire. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland.
Article source: Russell Shortt - http://www.exploringireland.net - http://www.visitscotlandtours.com
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt http://EzineArticles.com/?Cleopatra---The-Last-Egyptian-Pharaoh&id=2550161
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt]Russell Shortt
Cleopatra! What a life! What a woman! What a nose! Like all the greats, she is known to one and all simply by the one name. Her's was a life that was set to dominate world events in the most dramatic of fashions. I blame the parents, from the day she graced the world with her presence, she was informed that she was a goddess, she believed herself to be divine. There were going to be stormy waters ahead. She was the first of the great Divas, her modern sisters Beyonce, Britney and Mariah pale in comparison. Perhaps she influenced them, but she took her influence from the gods themselves, using Isis and Aphrodite as her blueprints. Reinventing herself more than Madonna, Cleopatra was her own best publicist/historian, she had a mood and a costume for every occasion, enchanting the masses with mighty pageantry.
She is one of the most enduring figures in history, yet she is also one of the most elusive. Bizarrely and maddeningly, we still do not know what she actually looked like. Her beauty is feted but other accounts assert her to be beautiful as opposed to a beauty, we have no idea, we are not even certain whether she looked Greek or Egyptian. Much of the blame for the lack of sources can be apportioned to Octavian who ordered that all images of her be destroyed, he also spread tales about her which blurs the line between fact and fiction regarding her.
We know it began hairy, her beauty was a product of the union of a brother and sister, dodgy beginnings to say the least. At the tender age of eighteen, Cleopatra became joint monarch of Egypt along with her twelve year old brother, Ptolemy XIII who she bizarrely later married. Cleopatra didn't like to share anything, she attempted to depose of her younger brother/husband, but in the end it was her who was left fleeing the country with her younger sister. Gone but not for good, she spent her exile in the desert rallying Arab tribes to her cause. Meanwhile, however things were going a tad pear shaped back in Alexandria for Ptolemy XIII. Four thousand Roman legionnaires arrived in the port, led by none other than Julius Caesar himself. Ptolemy fled lively, Julius moved into the palace and began doling out orders. Cleopatra however, was not going to be so easily jilted; famously she smuggled her way into the palace in a rolled carpet. As it was unfurled, the beautiful Cleopatra gracefully emerged, capturing an audience with Caesar and his heart. Ptolemy was understandably rather furious; he had lost his sister, co-ruler, wife and kingdom. He waged war on Alexandria, it proved to be a rash decision, he lost the war and found himself at the bottom of the Nile.
Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt, albeit with serious Roman backing. Caesar believed that he would be able to use her as a puppet, he had obviously not really got to know her that well. She willingly married her eleven year old brother, Ptolemy XIV to appease the Alexandrian lobby whilst at the same time becoming pregnant in a hurry by Caesar. Their son, Ptolemy Caesar was born in 47 BCE, he became better known as Caesarion meaning Little Caesar. The little guy was something of a pawn between the two, Cleopatra realised that she required the support of Rome to keep her in control of Egypt, while Caesar had seen at first hand how the Egyptian people worshipped Cleopatra, that together they could unite Rome and Egypt and that Little Caesar would rule the whole shebang. However, it definitely was not solely a marriage of convenience, for Caesar brought his mistress back to Rome, although it shocked society, for Caesar was already married. He established her in his home, where she lived in rather a rock and roll fashion. She fashioned herself as the new Isis, refused to worship Roman gods, lived in opulence and basically scandalized Rome. The celebrity couple's exuberance was cut short however, with the assassination of Julius in 44 BCE by a conspiracy of Roman senators. Cleopatra fled Rome with the four year old Caesarion. She was in a perilous position, Caesar had not made any provisions for her, she returned to an Egypt that was ravaged by plague and famine. But Cleopatra was nothing if not capable, she quickly set about murdering her brother Ptolemy XIV and establishing herself and her cherished Little Caesar as co-regents.
In the wake of Julius Caesar's assassination, Rome was flung into a bloody battle of succession with Mark Antony's Second Triumvirate (consisting of he, Octavian and Lepidua) emerging victorious. He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in modern day Turkey under the dubious pretext of quizzing her about her loyalty. Cleopatra seized upon the opportunity, she arrived in the port of Tarsus with a magnificent fleet, sporting silver oars and purple sails. Cleopatra ensured that she made maximum impact, dressed as Aphrodite, being fanned by Erotes clad boys and Neried handmaidens. It worked, Mark Antony was bowled over, falling deeply in love with the Egyptian Queen. Cleopatra had marked him well, he was fond of wine and women, was vain, setting himself up as Dionysus and claiming to be ancestor of Hercules. The meeting became more than the cementing of a political alliance, it burgeoned into a marriage of two gods, their union would indeed change the order of the universe. Once again, Cleopatra brought the most powerful man in Rome back to Alexandria, once again he did favours for her (including killing her sister Aristone) and once again she fell pregnant quickly, giving birth to twins in 40 BCE, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene.
Mark Antony though had learnt well from the mistakes of Julius Caesar, he returned to his wife, Fulvia in Rome, leaving Cleopatra in Egypt, the two would not meet again for four years. Fulvia brought her own problems however, she had fallen foul of Octavian, but somewhat fortunately she died, giving Mark Anthony the opportunity to patch things ups with Octavian by marrying his sister, Octavia Minor. However, it was obvious that Mark Anthony was still quite smitten by Cleopatra, for when he went to war with the Parthians, he sent for her to meet him at Antioch. They exchanged gifts, Mark Anthony giving Cleopatra huge tracts of land while she opened up her bounteous coffers to him. In the subsequent war however, Mark Antony was fairly battered, he fell into the open and protective arms of Cleopatra, returning to Egypt with her in 35BCE, spurning Octavia who remained loyal to him and making Octavian furious. The die was cast, Mark Antony decided there was no going back, he married Cleopatra and at the Donations of Alexandria he began doling out parts of the Eastern Roman Empire between her and her children. Cleopatra never one to be behind the door, began to set her sights on becoming Empress of the world.
However, Octavian beat the lard out of Mark Antony at Actium in Greece and then pursued his retreating forces into Egypt. Mark Antony, believing Cleopatra to be dead, killed himself; Cleopatra followed suit a few days later preferring death than to see the Romans march victoriously through the streets of Alexandria. To the end she remained enchanting, calling for an asp to be brought to her, the Egyptian religion proclaimed that death by a snakebite would secure immortality. Her death marked the end of the Egyptian Monarchs, and so a culture that had spanned thousands of years ended, Egypt was conquered and inaugurated as a province into the Eastern Roman Empire. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland.
Article source: Russell Shortt - http://www.exploringireland.net - http://www.visitscotlandtours.com
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Russell_Shortt http://EzineArticles.com/?Cleopatra---The-Last-Egyptian-Pharaoh&id=2550161
Friday, August 14, 2009
Rabbits Find Lost Roman Villas
Rabbits Find Lost Roman Villas
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
I recently visited a restored Roman Villa at Chedsworth, England in the Cotswold hills. They had some very beautiful mosaic floors on show, which were still largely intact, within the villa's restored bath houses and dining rooms. These mosaic panels, dating back from between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, were of great interest to me. The villa itself was made up of a rather large group of adjoining rooms, laid out in an extended three sided horseshoe shape. I was amazed at the size of this ancient farm or ranch, and the extent of its facilities , which included a running water toilet suite, with seating for several individuals and two extensive and opulent bath houses. The villa also boasted a private temple or chapel, with a pool fed by a spring. The temple was dedicated to the local water goddess. Less well preserved, were the remains of extensive colonnades for elegant porticos that once ran along the sides of the building. However the crowning glory was the indubitably the spacious dining hall, with its beautiful mosaic floor, which had the added luxury of under floor heating. To me, the overwhelming impression was that this villa seemed to be more of a comfortable holiday resort, designed for leisure, rather than a working farm.
I was told that in Britain and other European countries, burrowing rabbits and other animals are often responsible, for the discovery of long buried villas and other buildings from the Roman era. These little animals, whilst scratching down to make their burrows, bring up loose tesserae blocks, from buried mosaic floors and spread them around at the surface. These small multi-coloured stone blocks or tiles were probably first loosened up from the original mosaic floors by frost, shortly after the buildings were abandoned, many centuries ago. However once they had been brought to the surface by the rabbits, they have provided clues, to those in the know, that have led to the finding of the ancient remains of several buildings. Chedworth villa, itself, was discovered by two men who were trying to retrieve a ferret, while rabbit hunting in the late nineteenth century.
What amazed me about the floors at Chedworth Villa, was how professionally the mosaic work had been done. After all, Britain was a very remote and fairly poor part of the empire in this period and Chedworth itself was not near any big city or town. However, the owners of the estate must have been very wealthy to have had not one, but two, good sized bath suites with their mosaic decorated steam rooms, dry heat saunas and hot and cold plunge pools and also to have had the wonderful under floor heating system below the dining and living rooms. These facilities must have been treasures indeed in a cold British winter. But what a degree of sophistication to find so far off the beaten track! I'm sure that the mosaic artists must have been imported from overseas - the work was just too professional for a frontier province!
I have always been fascinated by the legacy that Rome has left us and I have to confess that my interest in mosaics as an art form has largely been inspired by the extraordinary richness of the Roman art that this medium has preserved so well. It provides color and sense of the continuance of life that the often grey record of centuries of history sometimes misses. Mosaic art is an open window into a world long past. It gives us a glimpse into a refined and leisurely lifestyle that was far removed from the gore of the gladiator's arena and all the pomp and splendor of Rome's military might. I have seen magnificent 2000 year old mosaics in the British Museum and around Rome, at places such as Ostia, at Caracalla's baths, and in the Vatican. These pieces are no mere architectural decoration, but have been great works of art in their own right. Moreover, they all look as though they were laid out just yesterday.
Mosaics are made to last - the ones we see today have outlasted kingdoms and empires. So any aspiring mosaic artists had better be sure that their work is up to scratch, and of the highest standard, because the most severe critic of their work might only be born around the year 4009. Maybe there will still be some wild rabbits left by then!
There is a useful web page called Roman Mosaics where you can see some photos of these fine mosaics. Check out [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58/]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58
I was once a builder of bridges and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about the vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that I call my home, but was once birth mother to us all. She still holds many untold stories waiting to be released.
I grew to manhood in the green forests of north of the Zambezi, but now gaze from my desk over the restless southern seas that beat against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve Coe
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Rabbits-Find-Lost-Roman-Villas&id=2304512
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
I recently visited a restored Roman Villa at Chedsworth, England in the Cotswold hills. They had some very beautiful mosaic floors on show, which were still largely intact, within the villa's restored bath houses and dining rooms. These mosaic panels, dating back from between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, were of great interest to me. The villa itself was made up of a rather large group of adjoining rooms, laid out in an extended three sided horseshoe shape. I was amazed at the size of this ancient farm or ranch, and the extent of its facilities , which included a running water toilet suite, with seating for several individuals and two extensive and opulent bath houses. The villa also boasted a private temple or chapel, with a pool fed by a spring. The temple was dedicated to the local water goddess. Less well preserved, were the remains of extensive colonnades for elegant porticos that once ran along the sides of the building. However the crowning glory was the indubitably the spacious dining hall, with its beautiful mosaic floor, which had the added luxury of under floor heating. To me, the overwhelming impression was that this villa seemed to be more of a comfortable holiday resort, designed for leisure, rather than a working farm.
I was told that in Britain and other European countries, burrowing rabbits and other animals are often responsible, for the discovery of long buried villas and other buildings from the Roman era. These little animals, whilst scratching down to make their burrows, bring up loose tesserae blocks, from buried mosaic floors and spread them around at the surface. These small multi-coloured stone blocks or tiles were probably first loosened up from the original mosaic floors by frost, shortly after the buildings were abandoned, many centuries ago. However once they had been brought to the surface by the rabbits, they have provided clues, to those in the know, that have led to the finding of the ancient remains of several buildings. Chedworth villa, itself, was discovered by two men who were trying to retrieve a ferret, while rabbit hunting in the late nineteenth century.
What amazed me about the floors at Chedworth Villa, was how professionally the mosaic work had been done. After all, Britain was a very remote and fairly poor part of the empire in this period and Chedworth itself was not near any big city or town. However, the owners of the estate must have been very wealthy to have had not one, but two, good sized bath suites with their mosaic decorated steam rooms, dry heat saunas and hot and cold plunge pools and also to have had the wonderful under floor heating system below the dining and living rooms. These facilities must have been treasures indeed in a cold British winter. But what a degree of sophistication to find so far off the beaten track! I'm sure that the mosaic artists must have been imported from overseas - the work was just too professional for a frontier province!
I have always been fascinated by the legacy that Rome has left us and I have to confess that my interest in mosaics as an art form has largely been inspired by the extraordinary richness of the Roman art that this medium has preserved so well. It provides color and sense of the continuance of life that the often grey record of centuries of history sometimes misses. Mosaic art is an open window into a world long past. It gives us a glimpse into a refined and leisurely lifestyle that was far removed from the gore of the gladiator's arena and all the pomp and splendor of Rome's military might. I have seen magnificent 2000 year old mosaics in the British Museum and around Rome, at places such as Ostia, at Caracalla's baths, and in the Vatican. These pieces are no mere architectural decoration, but have been great works of art in their own right. Moreover, they all look as though they were laid out just yesterday.
Mosaics are made to last - the ones we see today have outlasted kingdoms and empires. So any aspiring mosaic artists had better be sure that their work is up to scratch, and of the highest standard, because the most severe critic of their work might only be born around the year 4009. Maybe there will still be some wild rabbits left by then!
There is a useful web page called Roman Mosaics where you can see some photos of these fine mosaics. Check out [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58/]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com/content/view/37/58
I was once a builder of bridges and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about the vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that I call my home, but was once birth mother to us all. She still holds many untold stories waiting to be released.
I grew to manhood in the green forests of north of the Zambezi, but now gaze from my desk over the restless southern seas that beat against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve Coe
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Rabbits-Find-Lost-Roman-Villas&id=2304512
Ancient Egypt - Ka and the Soul
Ancient Egypt - Ka and the Soul
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To the ancient Egyptians, the Ka was a concept of the animating life force within us all. It was conceived as a second image of the individual or in effect a spirit double. The Ka was a unique entity totally associated with the individual, coming into creation with the person's birth and remained bound to him or to her, even after death. It was not quite the same concept as the personal soul, which they identified separately and called the Ba. The Ba was actually the true essence of the spirit, and defined the person as a specific individual or entity with a place in the cosmos for all eternity. The ceremony of the opening of the mouth, conducted by the priests, either on the mummified corpse or on a statue representation of the dead person, was aimed to restore physical abilities in death and to release the attachment of the soul (Ba) to the body. This allowed the Ba to be united with the Ka in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an Akh. The union of Ba and Ka is symbolized by the looped cross - the Ankh, symbol of eternal life.
We often think of these ancient people as a nation fixated on death and morbidly terrified of its corrupting effect. A fear, manifest by a ghoulish fascination with embalmed corpses. Nothing could be more untrue! They were actually a people fixated on life. In all their works they really show how much they loved life and it is very clear that as a race, they celebrated it with a passion. In fact they did not even believe in a concept of death in the way we think of it. The end of their physical life was but a passing moment in an everlasting rush towards eternity.
This joyful celebration of life was brought home to me, when I came across a near life-sized wood carving of a man and his wife in a quiet corner of a European museum. They had been carved out of a single log and were slightly the worst for wear, but for some reason, these two tranquil figures moved me greatly, when I first saw them in the Louvre, over 30 years ago. Taken as individual statues, they were not great works of art; they looked timeworn and vulnerable, yet seen as a couple they seemed to hold an immense inner strength - a fierce bond that had somehow managed to safeguard the essence of their timeless union throughout all the long ages of their shared existence. It was as though they could endure anything that time could offer, just so long as they were left each to the other.
Who had found them and brought them from the warm sands that protected them to this cold and gloomy museum? Why had they been so disturbed. Like misty dreams, the busy years, in their never-ending passage had left these sleeping lovers untouched and unchanged as they rested, long forgotten in their secret hiding place below the sun-baked sands of their ancient homeland. They waited unseen and un-noticed as the desert land witnessed the rush of Alexander's spearmen, felt the tramp, tramp of Caesar's marching legions and shook in trembling awe at the thunder of Bonaparte's crashing cannonades. Powerful conquerors, beautiful queens, saints, scholars and many, many lesser men had come and gone - yet these two lovers still remained serene and secure, arms intertwined, always together - waiting for what?
It was with a growing sense of wonder that I began to understand just how old these two ancient figures actually were. They had been standing quietly thus - arm in arm, eternally watching the flows of time, while all the great religions of the world had had their birthing and entire civilizations had taken their turn to rise up and fall around them. Indeed, these small carvings had already been immensely old when ancient Greece was but a land of rustic shepherds and mighty Rome was only a dusty village straddling an unimportant river crossing. Their long watch had already stretched, not over centuries, but over whole millennia, before the great teachers, Abraham, Christ, Buddha and Mohammed each took their turn to preach love and understanding to generations of unhearing fools. Fools, blinded by distorted certainties, crippled in spirit who were ever eager to rush out to change the world, armed and justified by their garbled misread gospels and their fierce willingness to spill their brother's blood.
The museum was full of the greatest works of man, but neither the wealth and power of the kings, pharaohs and emperors on display, nor the exquisite beauty of the magnificent art treasures adorning the walls, impressed me ever so much as this very ordinary couple, who had left nothing but themselves. Their fundamental humanity, decency, and the love that they had once shared for each other was still so very apparent. Back then in Paris, I was young and also in love for the first time myself. My world was bright and wonderful and I thought it would last forever. However for those of us, who still walk this earth, life goes on, and time gradually takes its insidious toll on our bodies, our affections and the commitments that go with them. We get over our losses; eventually even the most poignant memories are just excess baggage to be put aside. For us, time indeed passes and never lightly. But then one day, opening a book on ancient Egypt, I was delighted to discover a recent photograph of these two old friends of my youth. There they were - just as I remembered them! Half a lifetime had passed for me and I was now a different person, "something lost and something gained, by living every day" - but for them nothing at all had changed.
How brief life is! The experiences of all those long years, since my joyful days in Paris, were but the blinking of an eye compared to the immense passage of time, since that distant Egyptian day, when the statues were taken west of the Nile to be prepared by the priests for the "opening of the mouth" ceremony. The ritual that would guarantee that the "ka", or life force, of each of the lovers would live forever in the statues and that they would be bonded to their chosen one for all of eternity.
Old feelings came flooding back to me and that was why I wrote my poem. My poem, Ka, can be found at [http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html]http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html. I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer. I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free. I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world. My website is - http://www.how-to-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Ancient-Egypt---Ka-and-the-Soul&id=2655355
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To the ancient Egyptians, the Ka was a concept of the animating life force within us all. It was conceived as a second image of the individual or in effect a spirit double. The Ka was a unique entity totally associated with the individual, coming into creation with the person's birth and remained bound to him or to her, even after death. It was not quite the same concept as the personal soul, which they identified separately and called the Ba. The Ba was actually the true essence of the spirit, and defined the person as a specific individual or entity with a place in the cosmos for all eternity. The ceremony of the opening of the mouth, conducted by the priests, either on the mummified corpse or on a statue representation of the dead person, was aimed to restore physical abilities in death and to release the attachment of the soul (Ba) to the body. This allowed the Ba to be united with the Ka in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an Akh. The union of Ba and Ka is symbolized by the looped cross - the Ankh, symbol of eternal life.
We often think of these ancient people as a nation fixated on death and morbidly terrified of its corrupting effect. A fear, manifest by a ghoulish fascination with embalmed corpses. Nothing could be more untrue! They were actually a people fixated on life. In all their works they really show how much they loved life and it is very clear that as a race, they celebrated it with a passion. In fact they did not even believe in a concept of death in the way we think of it. The end of their physical life was but a passing moment in an everlasting rush towards eternity.
This joyful celebration of life was brought home to me, when I came across a near life-sized wood carving of a man and his wife in a quiet corner of a European museum. They had been carved out of a single log and were slightly the worst for wear, but for some reason, these two tranquil figures moved me greatly, when I first saw them in the Louvre, over 30 years ago. Taken as individual statues, they were not great works of art; they looked timeworn and vulnerable, yet seen as a couple they seemed to hold an immense inner strength - a fierce bond that had somehow managed to safeguard the essence of their timeless union throughout all the long ages of their shared existence. It was as though they could endure anything that time could offer, just so long as they were left each to the other.
Who had found them and brought them from the warm sands that protected them to this cold and gloomy museum? Why had they been so disturbed. Like misty dreams, the busy years, in their never-ending passage had left these sleeping lovers untouched and unchanged as they rested, long forgotten in their secret hiding place below the sun-baked sands of their ancient homeland. They waited unseen and un-noticed as the desert land witnessed the rush of Alexander's spearmen, felt the tramp, tramp of Caesar's marching legions and shook in trembling awe at the thunder of Bonaparte's crashing cannonades. Powerful conquerors, beautiful queens, saints, scholars and many, many lesser men had come and gone - yet these two lovers still remained serene and secure, arms intertwined, always together - waiting for what?
It was with a growing sense of wonder that I began to understand just how old these two ancient figures actually were. They had been standing quietly thus - arm in arm, eternally watching the flows of time, while all the great religions of the world had had their birthing and entire civilizations had taken their turn to rise up and fall around them. Indeed, these small carvings had already been immensely old when ancient Greece was but a land of rustic shepherds and mighty Rome was only a dusty village straddling an unimportant river crossing. Their long watch had already stretched, not over centuries, but over whole millennia, before the great teachers, Abraham, Christ, Buddha and Mohammed each took their turn to preach love and understanding to generations of unhearing fools. Fools, blinded by distorted certainties, crippled in spirit who were ever eager to rush out to change the world, armed and justified by their garbled misread gospels and their fierce willingness to spill their brother's blood.
The museum was full of the greatest works of man, but neither the wealth and power of the kings, pharaohs and emperors on display, nor the exquisite beauty of the magnificent art treasures adorning the walls, impressed me ever so much as this very ordinary couple, who had left nothing but themselves. Their fundamental humanity, decency, and the love that they had once shared for each other was still so very apparent. Back then in Paris, I was young and also in love for the first time myself. My world was bright and wonderful and I thought it would last forever. However for those of us, who still walk this earth, life goes on, and time gradually takes its insidious toll on our bodies, our affections and the commitments that go with them. We get over our losses; eventually even the most poignant memories are just excess baggage to be put aside. For us, time indeed passes and never lightly. But then one day, opening a book on ancient Egypt, I was delighted to discover a recent photograph of these two old friends of my youth. There they were - just as I remembered them! Half a lifetime had passed for me and I was now a different person, "something lost and something gained, by living every day" - but for them nothing at all had changed.
How brief life is! The experiences of all those long years, since my joyful days in Paris, were but the blinking of an eye compared to the immense passage of time, since that distant Egyptian day, when the statues were taken west of the Nile to be prepared by the priests for the "opening of the mouth" ceremony. The ritual that would guarantee that the "ka", or life force, of each of the lovers would live forever in the statues and that they would be bonded to their chosen one for all of eternity.
Old feelings came flooding back to me and that was why I wrote my poem. My poem, Ka, can be found at [http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html]http://ankhpatch.blogspot.com/2007/08/ka.html. I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer. I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free. I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world. My website is - http://www.how-to-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Ancient-Egypt---Ka-and-the-Soul&id=2655355
Mosaics In Roman Baths
Mosaics In Roman Baths
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To say that the ancient Romans were obsessed with bathing would not be a great exaggeration. At it's heyday, around 100 AD, the city of Rome had over 30 public baths and a host of private establishments. Rome was extremely well watered, with eleven great aqueducts bringing a huge amount of water into the city - some estimates give a figure as high as 1000 liters per day per person (about four times as much water as a modern American would use). Water-borne sewage, in a vast network of sewers laid under the streets, kept the city clean and healthy. Much of this abundant water was allocated to the "thermae" or public bathing facilities.
A Roman public bath, in imperial times, was very impressive facility, in many respects a combination of a sports centre or gym and a country club - though the larger ones would have dwarfed most similar modern facilities. Besides spacious halls for the swimming pools, there were suites of rooms, containing the equivalent of modern Turkish Baths (steam) and Scandinavian style Saunas (dry heat), Jacuzzis (warm pools), ice-cold plunge pools as well as exercise halls, massage rooms, toilet facilities, lounges and even public libraries. Extensive gardens surrounded the main structures and there were exercise yards for the athletically inclined.
The prestigious public baths in Rome and in many of the other important cities were endowed personally by the reigning emperor and were a means of stressing his importance, status and power. A large portion of the water from the aqueducts was reserved for the baths and one aqueduct - the Aquis Alexandretta was built specifically for this purpose. What is interesting, is that the facilities were not confined to the use of the upper classes and were open to all free citizens of the empire, though there may have been a very nominal entrance fee of a couple of copper coins. Public decorum was preserved and there were separate times set at the public baths for the bathing of women and men.
In order to embellish the massive halls, with their acres of concrete pavements and many enclosed suites of hot and cold rooms, the medium of choice was always mosaics. Artists were commissioned to create works on a huge scale and on a variety of themes - though water-related themes, such as playing dolphins, representations of waves and the depictions of water gods such as Neptune prevailed. Using mosaic motifs for floor and wall covering was both decorative and practical, for it not only added to the sense of luxury and elegance, but it also waterproofed and prorected the base concrete and made the surfaces easy to keep clean. An important consideration was that the use of brilliant white marble or other light coloured tesserae (mosaic blocks) for larger areas of background in the art work ensured that maximum use was made of reflected light to brighten up the rooms.
As an example of imperial splendor, the Baths of Caracalla at Rome remain the most impressive. They were built on a massive scale and, even in their ruined state, one can get a sense of the opulence and grandeur that they once represented. This was recognised by the Italian dictator Mussolini and since his time the great halls have been used as a most impressive backdrop for seasonal night time operatic productions.
Millions of baked clay bricks and tons of concrete were used in the building of the Baths and the original mosaic floors would easily have covered several football fields. Most of the floors were covered with repetitive geometric patterns of coloured tesserae, but there were also cheerful dichromatic works featuring dark figures of dolphins, charioteers, bulls and musicians, picked out skillfuly, against brilliant white marble backgrounds. The artists have managed to capture a great sense of movement and vivacity in their work, using just these two colors of tesserae.
One cannot but be amazed at the planning and care that went into setting out artwork on such a scale to cover these huge areas of floor - Where did they get all the mosaic artists and artisans, capable of maintaining the unity and spirit of these enormous pieces?
Not far to the east of Rome, where the Tiber meets the sea is the ancient city of Ostia. This seaport was the entrepot of Rome and was a well laid out, compact port city of merchants, shipwrights, tavern keepers and prostitutes - an industrial / commercial city that had the responsibility of despatching food and produce to the mother city. It was primarily a functional trading town, but nevertheless, possessed great public facilities.
There was a fine amphitheatre, a forum and other public spaces, many splendid temples, water-borne toilets and, of course, well appointed public baths (thermae). The two preserved baths were lavish and spacious, with floor coverings of exquisite dichromatic mosaic art - much of it still in good condition. The baths took up a sizeable area of the central city and were obviously of great importance to the hard working populace, who would have been mainly middle class merchants and dockyard workers.
In England an ancient Roman villa has been lovingly restored at Chedworth, near the town of Cirencester. There were two luxurious bathing suites attached to the buildings of this extensive homestead. Each of the bath houses had several beautiful mosaic floors, featuring geometric patterns and borders, but also displaying motifs such as figures, birds and flowers. A number of these bright floors were set up on stubby hippocaust columns and hot air was drafted through the space underneath, to provide central heating to chase away the winter chill. The floor mosaics themselves were set out with a small palette of whites, greys, yellows and browns, all cut from local stones.
However the prominant terracotta red tesserae were re-cycled ceramics, from baked roof tiles. The villa was in a remote area, a great distance from the heart of the empire, and it is not plausible that the necessary artistic skills and mosaic techniques would have been found locally, in order to produce such impressive work. The owner's of the farm must have been wealthy enough to have imported the services of migrant professional mosaic workers, presumably working under contract, to embellish their home. Incidentally it was the mosaics themselves that led to the re-discovery of the villa, which had become buried in time, following its abandonment in the fourth century. Burrowing rabbits had unearthed loose mosaic pieces (tesserae) and these colourful blocks were noticed by some woodsmen on a hunting expedition, who then informed the local squire.
We can still see many of these wonderful mosaics of the Roman world looking as bright and cheerful, as the day they were first laid out. A 2000 year testimony to the durability of this versatile medium. For some photographs of mosaics in Roman baths, you can visit the site [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com.
I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free.
I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Mosaics-In-Roman-Baths&id=2585707
By [http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe]Steve Coe
To say that the ancient Romans were obsessed with bathing would not be a great exaggeration. At it's heyday, around 100 AD, the city of Rome had over 30 public baths and a host of private establishments. Rome was extremely well watered, with eleven great aqueducts bringing a huge amount of water into the city - some estimates give a figure as high as 1000 liters per day per person (about four times as much water as a modern American would use). Water-borne sewage, in a vast network of sewers laid under the streets, kept the city clean and healthy. Much of this abundant water was allocated to the "thermae" or public bathing facilities.
A Roman public bath, in imperial times, was very impressive facility, in many respects a combination of a sports centre or gym and a country club - though the larger ones would have dwarfed most similar modern facilities. Besides spacious halls for the swimming pools, there were suites of rooms, containing the equivalent of modern Turkish Baths (steam) and Scandinavian style Saunas (dry heat), Jacuzzis (warm pools), ice-cold plunge pools as well as exercise halls, massage rooms, toilet facilities, lounges and even public libraries. Extensive gardens surrounded the main structures and there were exercise yards for the athletically inclined.
The prestigious public baths in Rome and in many of the other important cities were endowed personally by the reigning emperor and were a means of stressing his importance, status and power. A large portion of the water from the aqueducts was reserved for the baths and one aqueduct - the Aquis Alexandretta was built specifically for this purpose. What is interesting, is that the facilities were not confined to the use of the upper classes and were open to all free citizens of the empire, though there may have been a very nominal entrance fee of a couple of copper coins. Public decorum was preserved and there were separate times set at the public baths for the bathing of women and men.
In order to embellish the massive halls, with their acres of concrete pavements and many enclosed suites of hot and cold rooms, the medium of choice was always mosaics. Artists were commissioned to create works on a huge scale and on a variety of themes - though water-related themes, such as playing dolphins, representations of waves and the depictions of water gods such as Neptune prevailed. Using mosaic motifs for floor and wall covering was both decorative and practical, for it not only added to the sense of luxury and elegance, but it also waterproofed and prorected the base concrete and made the surfaces easy to keep clean. An important consideration was that the use of brilliant white marble or other light coloured tesserae (mosaic blocks) for larger areas of background in the art work ensured that maximum use was made of reflected light to brighten up the rooms.
As an example of imperial splendor, the Baths of Caracalla at Rome remain the most impressive. They were built on a massive scale and, even in their ruined state, one can get a sense of the opulence and grandeur that they once represented. This was recognised by the Italian dictator Mussolini and since his time the great halls have been used as a most impressive backdrop for seasonal night time operatic productions.
Millions of baked clay bricks and tons of concrete were used in the building of the Baths and the original mosaic floors would easily have covered several football fields. Most of the floors were covered with repetitive geometric patterns of coloured tesserae, but there were also cheerful dichromatic works featuring dark figures of dolphins, charioteers, bulls and musicians, picked out skillfuly, against brilliant white marble backgrounds. The artists have managed to capture a great sense of movement and vivacity in their work, using just these two colors of tesserae.
One cannot but be amazed at the planning and care that went into setting out artwork on such a scale to cover these huge areas of floor - Where did they get all the mosaic artists and artisans, capable of maintaining the unity and spirit of these enormous pieces?
Not far to the east of Rome, where the Tiber meets the sea is the ancient city of Ostia. This seaport was the entrepot of Rome and was a well laid out, compact port city of merchants, shipwrights, tavern keepers and prostitutes - an industrial / commercial city that had the responsibility of despatching food and produce to the mother city. It was primarily a functional trading town, but nevertheless, possessed great public facilities.
There was a fine amphitheatre, a forum and other public spaces, many splendid temples, water-borne toilets and, of course, well appointed public baths (thermae). The two preserved baths were lavish and spacious, with floor coverings of exquisite dichromatic mosaic art - much of it still in good condition. The baths took up a sizeable area of the central city and were obviously of great importance to the hard working populace, who would have been mainly middle class merchants and dockyard workers.
In England an ancient Roman villa has been lovingly restored at Chedworth, near the town of Cirencester. There were two luxurious bathing suites attached to the buildings of this extensive homestead. Each of the bath houses had several beautiful mosaic floors, featuring geometric patterns and borders, but also displaying motifs such as figures, birds and flowers. A number of these bright floors were set up on stubby hippocaust columns and hot air was drafted through the space underneath, to provide central heating to chase away the winter chill. The floor mosaics themselves were set out with a small palette of whites, greys, yellows and browns, all cut from local stones.
However the prominant terracotta red tesserae were re-cycled ceramics, from baked roof tiles. The villa was in a remote area, a great distance from the heart of the empire, and it is not plausible that the necessary artistic skills and mosaic techniques would have been found locally, in order to produce such impressive work. The owner's of the farm must have been wealthy enough to have imported the services of migrant professional mosaic workers, presumably working under contract, to embellish their home. Incidentally it was the mosaics themselves that led to the re-discovery of the villa, which had become buried in time, following its abandonment in the fourth century. Burrowing rabbits had unearthed loose mosaic pieces (tesserae) and these colourful blocks were noticed by some woodsmen on a hunting expedition, who then informed the local squire.
We can still see many of these wonderful mosaics of the Roman world looking as bright and cheerful, as the day they were first laid out. A 2000 year testimony to the durability of this versatile medium. For some photographs of mosaics in Roman baths, you can visit the site [http://how-to-make-mosaics.com]http://how-to-make-mosaics.com.
I was once a builder of bridges, waterways and roads, but now like to call myself a writer.
I am African, for my writing is usually about this vast ancient land of warm winds and far horizons that was once birth mother to us all. She is always untamed, always unpredictable and is forever softly whispering her hidden secrets into the wind that chases the racing storm clouds over her mighty hills. If you listen to the sound of the rain, you may hear the singing of these thousands of untold stories. They are just waiting to be set free.
I grew to manhood in green forests, north of the Zambezi, but now gaze out over the waters of the restless southern ocean. Not far from my writing desk, the waves beat tirelessly against the fairest cape in all the world.
My website is - http://www.howto-publish-a-book.com
Come visit,
Steve
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steve_Coe http://EzineArticles.com/?Mosaics-In-Roman-Baths&id=2585707
Friday, February 1, 2008
Not a Fan of Plato
Plato is often regarded as one of the originators of western philosophy. This is extremely unfortunate. Plato's fame and influence come from the fact that he was one of the first philosophers and the most prolific writers of ancient times.
Have you ever read his "Republic"? The book is so thoroughly, what we would today refer to as ignorant and bigoted that most of the intelligent people I know keep notebooks refuting certain points that he makes. In fact this seems to be a habit of serious philosophers including Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Popper to dispute Plato. Mathematics has had to invent "imaginary" and "irrational" numbers to come to terms with the reality that Plato did not wish to acknowledge.
Plato may not have even been an associate of Socrates. In the dialogues written by Plato nowhere will you hear Plato speak or being spoken to. The historical accuracy of the dialogues is also doubtful, reading through them and trying to figure out how old a given person is can lead to endless troubles. It’s as if Plato was simply making things up as he went along. Yet the dialogues were often dictated to him or were pieced together from letters written by the men involved.
Plato was so obsessed with the perfection of the world in which we live, things are either good or bad, black or white, his philosophy has thrown up numerous barriers to progress in the modern world. It would be impossible to erase Plato’s influence from the world; it may have been the rediscovery of his ideas that brought about many of the positive changes of the European renaissance.
It was also Plato’s ideas thought that have made understanding of the quantum world nearly impossible for anyone raised in modern schools where Plato’s ideas of “pure” mathematics have become the standard in public education.
I acknowledge Plato’s influence on the world. But I don’t like it.
Have you ever read his "Republic"? The book is so thoroughly, what we would today refer to as ignorant and bigoted that most of the intelligent people I know keep notebooks refuting certain points that he makes. In fact this seems to be a habit of serious philosophers including Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Popper to dispute Plato. Mathematics has had to invent "imaginary" and "irrational" numbers to come to terms with the reality that Plato did not wish to acknowledge.
Plato may not have even been an associate of Socrates. In the dialogues written by Plato nowhere will you hear Plato speak or being spoken to. The historical accuracy of the dialogues is also doubtful, reading through them and trying to figure out how old a given person is can lead to endless troubles. It’s as if Plato was simply making things up as he went along. Yet the dialogues were often dictated to him or were pieced together from letters written by the men involved.
Plato was so obsessed with the perfection of the world in which we live, things are either good or bad, black or white, his philosophy has thrown up numerous barriers to progress in the modern world. It would be impossible to erase Plato’s influence from the world; it may have been the rediscovery of his ideas that brought about many of the positive changes of the European renaissance.
It was also Plato’s ideas thought that have made understanding of the quantum world nearly impossible for anyone raised in modern schools where Plato’s ideas of “pure” mathematics have become the standard in public education.
I acknowledge Plato’s influence on the world. But I don’t like it.
Thursday, January 31, 2008
A Brief History of Maps
Maps Of The World: Their Evolution Through The Ages by Lucien Oliveira
Cartography, or map-making, is an ancient "art". Archeologists have found maps of the world dating from pre-Christian eras. The earliest world maps discovered were made by the Babylonians. They were symbolic maps instead of literal representation, but they had already shown cardinal directions. These maps show how map-making was always very important to the human kind. Although they were not as far accurate as our modern maps of the world, they were still very significant to the civilisations that created them.
On history of cartography, you can even find local and regional maps drawn by indigenous people. Ancient Egyptians also produced maps, emphasizing geometry and surveying techniques to draw them. But the first world scale maps were made by the ancient Greek. They made speculations on Earth's size and shape, though, at first, they represented our planet as a circular flat disc. Ptolemy, a famous Greek philosopher, introduced several cartographic innovations and influenced several centuries to come. His world maps, nonetheless, were distorted in orientation and shape. Also, he made use of two other sciences to help on map-making: astronomy and mathematics. Furthermore, it was the Greek philosophers who first assumed that the Earth was spherical. They also made scientific estimates on Earth's circumference. In addition, it was Eratosthenes, another Greek philosopher, who made great achievements on this field. He created the concept of meridian and parallel, and was also the first to divide the Earth in five climate areas correctly.
European maps came a long way before becoming what they are now. In early Middle Ages, people still insisted on the concept that the Earth was a flat disc. It was in these ages that the mappae mundi were drawn. They consisted of four types of world maps: zonal maps (divided in five climate zones), tripartite (the three known continents), quadripartite (the three known continents and an equatorial ocean), and complex maps (tripartite showing more details such as cities and topography elements). Until Renaissance, there wasn't much improvement. But in this period, though, the discovery of the Americas and the need of controlling and dividing those lands encouraged surveys again.
In 1884, Greenwich prime meridian was defined as international standard reference, and in the 20th century, maps became quite abundant due to improvements in fields like printing and photography. As technology advances were made, cartography became a more complex science. First, we had brushes and parchment, but nowadays we can produce far more accurate maps of the world using discoveries such as compass, telescope, sextant, quadrant, vernier, printing press, etc. We also have a huge range of map types and styles. Apart from topographic and political world maps, we can have thematic maps on specific subjects which are oriented to specific audiences. Colors, symbols, the compass rose, legends, among others are largely used to make details easy to comprehend.
In conclusion, the maps of the world have gone a long journey to become what they are now but, with all these modern achievements, we can virtually have world maps displaying the surface of the Earth in any map projection we need.
Lucien Oliveira is a freelance writer with strong interest nature, environment and earth. You can find more on map of the world . Read more about world maps and animal tracking.
Article Directory: http://www.articledashboard.com
Cartography, or map-making, is an ancient "art". Archeologists have found maps of the world dating from pre-Christian eras. The earliest world maps discovered were made by the Babylonians. They were symbolic maps instead of literal representation, but they had already shown cardinal directions. These maps show how map-making was always very important to the human kind. Although they were not as far accurate as our modern maps of the world, they were still very significant to the civilisations that created them.
On history of cartography, you can even find local and regional maps drawn by indigenous people. Ancient Egyptians also produced maps, emphasizing geometry and surveying techniques to draw them. But the first world scale maps were made by the ancient Greek. They made speculations on Earth's size and shape, though, at first, they represented our planet as a circular flat disc. Ptolemy, a famous Greek philosopher, introduced several cartographic innovations and influenced several centuries to come. His world maps, nonetheless, were distorted in orientation and shape. Also, he made use of two other sciences to help on map-making: astronomy and mathematics. Furthermore, it was the Greek philosophers who first assumed that the Earth was spherical. They also made scientific estimates on Earth's circumference. In addition, it was Eratosthenes, another Greek philosopher, who made great achievements on this field. He created the concept of meridian and parallel, and was also the first to divide the Earth in five climate areas correctly.
European maps came a long way before becoming what they are now. In early Middle Ages, people still insisted on the concept that the Earth was a flat disc. It was in these ages that the mappae mundi were drawn. They consisted of four types of world maps: zonal maps (divided in five climate zones), tripartite (the three known continents), quadripartite (the three known continents and an equatorial ocean), and complex maps (tripartite showing more details such as cities and topography elements). Until Renaissance, there wasn't much improvement. But in this period, though, the discovery of the Americas and the need of controlling and dividing those lands encouraged surveys again.
In 1884, Greenwich prime meridian was defined as international standard reference, and in the 20th century, maps became quite abundant due to improvements in fields like printing and photography. As technology advances were made, cartography became a more complex science. First, we had brushes and parchment, but nowadays we can produce far more accurate maps of the world using discoveries such as compass, telescope, sextant, quadrant, vernier, printing press, etc. We also have a huge range of map types and styles. Apart from topographic and political world maps, we can have thematic maps on specific subjects which are oriented to specific audiences. Colors, symbols, the compass rose, legends, among others are largely used to make details easy to comprehend.
In conclusion, the maps of the world have gone a long journey to become what they are now but, with all these modern achievements, we can virtually have world maps displaying the surface of the Earth in any map projection we need.
Lucien Oliveira is a freelance writer with strong interest nature, environment and earth. You can find more on map of the world . Read more about world maps and animal tracking.
Article Directory: http://www.articledashboard.com
Thursday, January 24, 2008
History of The Cycladic Islands
Santorini History of the Cycladic Islands
By Fotis Pitsas
No one knows exactly when the Cyclades were first inhabited. From obsidian finds in the 8th millennium stratum on Milos and in Frankthi Cave in Hermioni (Argolid Peninsula), we can conclude that the Cyclades were already inhabited at that time.
It is generally believed that the Phoenicians and the Carians inhabited the Cyclades during prehistoric times. Later, the islands came under the Minoan sphere of influence.
They were then re-inhabited by the Carians, and finally colonized by the Ionians.
The most ancient settlement found in the Cyclades is on Saliagos, a small islet between Paros and Antiparos. The settlement dates from the beginning of the late Neolithic period, c. 4300-3900 BC.
The discovery in 1959 of surface traces of prehistoric habitation lead to excavations (1964-65), which were conducted by the British School of Archeology Stone figurines, anthropomorphic amulets, Milos pottery with white decoration, and hundreds of obsidian tools, arrowheads and votive offerings were unearthed in the excavations.
A fortification wall with a turret surrounded the settlement, which was made up of small residences. Archaeologists exposed three archaeological strata corresponding to three periods of habitation. Earliest known it is speculated that the settlement extended into sections that are now underwater. Moreover, it is likely that during that era Saliagos was part of Antiparos.
The large quantity of obsidian chips found on Saliagos is conclusive evidence that the islet was one of the early processing and trading stations for obsidian from Milos.
Obsidian, marble and emery were the raw materials used in the Cyclades to make both tools as well as artworks. In general, the Cycladic peoples had limited resources. This fact inspired them to utilize their ingenuity, to take advantage of what nature provided and to expand into new activities such as tool-making, shipping and trade.
Their economy was probably mixed combining farming, livestock raising, hunting and fishing, along with the exploitation of local raw materials.
Cycladic potters developed a technique of painting white designs on a dark back-ground. The pots, which are shaped like fruit bowls with a long leg, have white decoration on a dark back-ground. Most characteristic of the Neolithic period are the schematic marble figurines, the most famous of which is the so-called Fat Lady of Saliagos.
During the Bronze Age, Cycladic civilization produced works of art that are unique in the Aegean region. Cycladic idols, carved from local white marble, are regarded as refined works of mature, sophisticated artists.
By the early Bronze Age (3200-2200 BC) the Cyclades had developed an advanced culture that had extensive contact with the other player islands in the region.
Shipping had expanded, elevating trade and commerce to a primary position in the Cycladic economy and significantly influencing social development and change in the Aegean.
There is a long List of Greek islands including Cycladic Island-Mykonos and Cycladic island - Santorini.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Fotis_Pitsas
http://EzineArticles.com/?Santorini-History-of-the-Cycladic-Islands&id=918983
Wednesday, January 23, 2008
The Ionian Revolt, Why Persia Wanted to Conquer Greece
The Ionian revolt was started in 499 BC by a Tyrant ruler of Miletus. Aristagoras gained control of the city in modern day Turkey during the reign of King Darius I of Persia. The former ruler of the city becoming an advisor to Darius. Though not recognized as the ruler of the city Aristagoras hoped that by helping to quell a revolt on the island of Naxos he would be granted that honor by the Persians. The plan failed however when he began quarreling with the admiral of the Persian fleet that was on its way to stop the rebellion.
Aristagoras after his alliances with the Persians fell apart began planning a revolt with other Ionian cities. After gaining the support of the citizen of Miletus and forming a democracy in the city which quickly spread to other Ionian cities Aristagoras went to Sparta and Athens to gain support for his rebellion from the Persians.
The Spartan King refused to help Aristagoras but the citizens of the Athenian democracy rallied around his cause and began fighting with him. While the Satrap of Lydia Artaphernes (who had previously been Aristagoras' main Persian ally) dispatched troops to attack Miletus, Aristagoras and the Athenians attacked Sardis where Artaphernes lived. While the Greeks weren't able to take the city they were able to plunder it and eventually burnt it to the ground.
It is from the burning of Sardis by the Athenians that prompted Darius I to pay attention to the Greeks. It is rumored that 3 times a day he had a servant whisper into his ear "remember the Athenians".
The rebellion gained strength after the burning of Sardis though the size and strength of the Persian army quickly managed to put it down. The rebellion came to an end after only 6 years after Miletus was captured. Aristagoras however after realizing the hopeless position he was in fled to the relative safety of Thrace, after attempting to establish a colony though he was kill by the Thracians.
Aristagoras after his alliances with the Persians fell apart began planning a revolt with other Ionian cities. After gaining the support of the citizen of Miletus and forming a democracy in the city which quickly spread to other Ionian cities Aristagoras went to Sparta and Athens to gain support for his rebellion from the Persians.
The Spartan King refused to help Aristagoras but the citizens of the Athenian democracy rallied around his cause and began fighting with him. While the Satrap of Lydia Artaphernes (who had previously been Aristagoras' main Persian ally) dispatched troops to attack Miletus, Aristagoras and the Athenians attacked Sardis where Artaphernes lived. While the Greeks weren't able to take the city they were able to plunder it and eventually burnt it to the ground.
It is from the burning of Sardis by the Athenians that prompted Darius I to pay attention to the Greeks. It is rumored that 3 times a day he had a servant whisper into his ear "remember the Athenians".
The rebellion gained strength after the burning of Sardis though the size and strength of the Persian army quickly managed to put it down. The rebellion came to an end after only 6 years after Miletus was captured. Aristagoras however after realizing the hopeless position he was in fled to the relative safety of Thrace, after attempting to establish a colony though he was kill by the Thracians.
Monday, January 14, 2008
A Brief History of the Peloponnesian War
The Peloponnesian war which lasted from 431-404 BC was a war primarily between the Athenians and Spartans that enveloped the Greek city-states and lead to the downfall of Athens.
The war is generally divided by historians into three phases, the first of which called the Archidamian war was comprised of a series of invasions on Attica by the Spartans while Athens took advantage of its Naval superiority to launch coastal raids on cities sympathetic to the Spartans. This part of the war lasted for tens years and is acknowledged to have ended in 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias.
In 415 BC however Athens attempted an invasion of Syracuse in Sicily. The massive expedition ended in disaster for Athens and ushered in the final phase of the war in 413BC. This last phase of the Peloponnesian war known by several different names including the Ionian war saw Persia joining forces with the Spartans to undermine the Athenian empire by encouraging rebellions in its subject states.
The Peloponnesian war devastated most of the Greek city states. Athens as almost completely devastated and most Greeks were reduced to extreme poverty. Though Sparta may have won the war and gained Hegemony over the Greek world and parts of what was Persia. This victory did not last for very long without the infusion of what had been Athens great culture and Sparta was eventually destroyed.
Greece was nearly destroyed and what had been civilized before the war was now thrown back to a more primal and violent culture of survival.
The war is generally divided by historians into three phases, the first of which called the Archidamian war was comprised of a series of invasions on Attica by the Spartans while Athens took advantage of its Naval superiority to launch coastal raids on cities sympathetic to the Spartans. This part of the war lasted for tens years and is acknowledged to have ended in 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias.
In 415 BC however Athens attempted an invasion of Syracuse in Sicily. The massive expedition ended in disaster for Athens and ushered in the final phase of the war in 413BC. This last phase of the Peloponnesian war known by several different names including the Ionian war saw Persia joining forces with the Spartans to undermine the Athenian empire by encouraging rebellions in its subject states.
The Peloponnesian war devastated most of the Greek city states. Athens as almost completely devastated and most Greeks were reduced to extreme poverty. Though Sparta may have won the war and gained Hegemony over the Greek world and parts of what was Persia. This victory did not last for very long without the infusion of what had been Athens great culture and Sparta was eventually destroyed.
Greece was nearly destroyed and what had been civilized before the war was now thrown back to a more primal and violent culture of survival.
Sunday, January 13, 2008
Pericles
Pericles who lived from 495-429 BC was one of ancient Athens greatest leaders. He is said to have been first among the citizens of Athens for more than 40 years during its period of direct democracy. A populist leader Pericles had opposition such as Cimon ostracized while promoting the rights of the poor in Athens, who were the vast majority of citizens in Athens.
Pericles was one of the wealthiest men in Athens and on occasion made it a point to show others this fact for political gain. Such as when he sponsored a play depicting the triumphant victory at Salamis of Themistocles whom Pericles was a supporter.
Pericles set about making social changes in Athens that finally ended the aristocratic institutions of Athens which Solon had begun more than a hundred years before.
Pericles also began the process of turning Athens into an empire. Using the institutions of the Delian league he turn allies into subjects. Where once the other members of the Delian league gave military service in defense of Greece they now sent gold and silver instead.
To those who asked what this tribute was being spent on Pericles only responded that they should notice they were safe. With the money gained through tribute by the Delian league Pericles set about on a construction boom in Athens. In fact most of the surviving monuments on the acropolis in Athens were built during the rule of Pericles.
Pericles promoted the arts and literature setting the stage for Athens to become the cultural and educational center of the ancient Greek world.
Pericles is also held responsible for inciting the Peloponnesian war, which Athens lost to the Spartans almost 30 years later in 404BC.
Pericles was one of the wealthiest men in Athens and on occasion made it a point to show others this fact for political gain. Such as when he sponsored a play depicting the triumphant victory at Salamis of Themistocles whom Pericles was a supporter.
Pericles set about making social changes in Athens that finally ended the aristocratic institutions of Athens which Solon had begun more than a hundred years before.
Pericles also began the process of turning Athens into an empire. Using the institutions of the Delian league he turn allies into subjects. Where once the other members of the Delian league gave military service in defense of Greece they now sent gold and silver instead.
To those who asked what this tribute was being spent on Pericles only responded that they should notice they were safe. With the money gained through tribute by the Delian league Pericles set about on a construction boom in Athens. In fact most of the surviving monuments on the acropolis in Athens were built during the rule of Pericles.
Pericles promoted the arts and literature setting the stage for Athens to become the cultural and educational center of the ancient Greek world.
Pericles is also held responsible for inciting the Peloponnesian war, which Athens lost to the Spartans almost 30 years later in 404BC.
Alexander The Great
Alexander the Great lived from 356-323 BC son of Phillip II of Macedon and his fourth polygamous wife Olympia a princess of Epirus. Olympia not being a “true” Macedonian resulted in succession problems which often resulted in violent confrontations between Phillip and Alexander.
In 336 BC Phillip was assassinated by a disgraced male lover of his. It is often rumored though that Alexander was in some way complicit to the murder. After Phillip’s death the coalitions he created began to collapse. Alexander had inherited the finest army in the world from his father and was going to use it. Alexander is the first king to earn the title of “The Great” because of the military accomplishments he made in his short life.
Alexander the Great build what was at that time and for many generations later the largest empire that the world had known. Stretching as far east as Punjab in India. It was Alexander’s plan to head all the way to what he knew as The Great Outer Sea. Which we now know as the Pacific ocean before turning his armies around and conquering the Mediterranean.
Alexander died before he could accomplish his goals. It is possible that he was poisoned during a night of heavy drinking in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon or simply malaria at the age of 33. Alexander died barely able to even speak, when asked who it should be to succeed him his reply may have had one of several different meanings. Alexander is most often thought to have replied “to the strongest” although it is possible that he had said the name of one of is generals Craterus who’s name is only one syllable different. His life was short but he was well educated Aristotle was in fact one of his tutors and had been called upon by Phillip to teach his son because of his renown as the greatest philosopher of his day.
After Alexander’s death for unclear reasons. His generals met in Babylon to divide his empire among themselves. One of his Generals, Ptolemy, become the new ruler of Egypt and was father to Cleopatra of Egypt seducer of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.
In 336 BC Phillip was assassinated by a disgraced male lover of his. It is often rumored though that Alexander was in some way complicit to the murder. After Phillip’s death the coalitions he created began to collapse. Alexander had inherited the finest army in the world from his father and was going to use it. Alexander is the first king to earn the title of “The Great” because of the military accomplishments he made in his short life.
Alexander the Great build what was at that time and for many generations later the largest empire that the world had known. Stretching as far east as Punjab in India. It was Alexander’s plan to head all the way to what he knew as The Great Outer Sea. Which we now know as the Pacific ocean before turning his armies around and conquering the Mediterranean.
Alexander died before he could accomplish his goals. It is possible that he was poisoned during a night of heavy drinking in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon or simply malaria at the age of 33. Alexander died barely able to even speak, when asked who it should be to succeed him his reply may have had one of several different meanings. Alexander is most often thought to have replied “to the strongest” although it is possible that he had said the name of one of is generals Craterus who’s name is only one syllable different. His life was short but he was well educated Aristotle was in fact one of his tutors and had been called upon by Phillip to teach his son because of his renown as the greatest philosopher of his day.
After Alexander’s death for unclear reasons. His generals met in Babylon to divide his empire among themselves. One of his Generals, Ptolemy, become the new ruler of Egypt and was father to Cleopatra of Egypt seducer of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.
Saturday, January 12, 2008
Athens Early Path To Democracy
The history of Athens begins with a Neolithic fortification on what is now known as the acropolis or “high city”. This high, easily defendable position was the anchor that has kept civilization in Athens for more than 3000 years. Athens can be looked at as the gate-way through which the cultural advances of Mesopotamia first enter Greece and then the whole of Europe. Earning Athenian culture the distinction as the beginning of western civilization.
Athens is surrounded by fertile river dales, the Aegean sea and several mountains. In ancient times the city was contained within a wall for defense and covered approximately 4 square kilometers. It is from this humble beginning that one of the oldest and most influential cities in European history began.
The Athenians did not conquer their surrounding neighbors by force but by a process of cynicisms, or the bringing together into one home. Athens is generally acknowledged for being the first democracy in the world but this is not entirely true. Only male citizens of a particular social class were allowed to hold political office. Making Athenian democracy more of an oligarchy. Athenian democracy was its greatest under Pericles’ rule.
Athens greatest strength though was its commerce. The sea not only brought boats carrying goods for trade but also it brought the Greeks ideas for foreign cultures. Athens is so well known by modern people simply because they were the ones who decided to write the most. Culture art, theater, music. All of these things were seen as part of the greatness of man. While the Spartans tried to maintain their warrior ways Athenians tried to get a more rounded life experience.
Of the many great names to come from Athens it was Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes who brought about the social changes that lead to Athenian democracy. Before Solon, Draco was tasked with creating a set of laws that would calm the social system in Athens. But these laws, where we get the term draconian from, failed to calm the unrest setting the stage for Solon. When Solon’s changes failed his cousin seized power. It would take another hundred years before Athens was ready for its famous democracy to hold power effectively.
Cleisthenes made the most stable democracy that Athens had known by dividing up the 4 main tribes of Athens into 10 new tribes or electorates, which in turn chose leaders among themselves. Creating less social division and allowing for a greater feeling of ease with Athens' social structure.
Athens is surrounded by fertile river dales, the Aegean sea and several mountains. In ancient times the city was contained within a wall for defense and covered approximately 4 square kilometers. It is from this humble beginning that one of the oldest and most influential cities in European history began.
The Athenians did not conquer their surrounding neighbors by force but by a process of cynicisms, or the bringing together into one home. Athens is generally acknowledged for being the first democracy in the world but this is not entirely true. Only male citizens of a particular social class were allowed to hold political office. Making Athenian democracy more of an oligarchy. Athenian democracy was its greatest under Pericles’ rule.
Athens greatest strength though was its commerce. The sea not only brought boats carrying goods for trade but also it brought the Greeks ideas for foreign cultures. Athens is so well known by modern people simply because they were the ones who decided to write the most. Culture art, theater, music. All of these things were seen as part of the greatness of man. While the Spartans tried to maintain their warrior ways Athenians tried to get a more rounded life experience.
Of the many great names to come from Athens it was Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes who brought about the social changes that lead to Athenian democracy. Before Solon, Draco was tasked with creating a set of laws that would calm the social system in Athens. But these laws, where we get the term draconian from, failed to calm the unrest setting the stage for Solon. When Solon’s changes failed his cousin seized power. It would take another hundred years before Athens was ready for its famous democracy to hold power effectively.
Cleisthenes made the most stable democracy that Athens had known by dividing up the 4 main tribes of Athens into 10 new tribes or electorates, which in turn chose leaders among themselves. Creating less social division and allowing for a greater feeling of ease with Athens' social structure.
Brief History of Sparta
Sparta is located strategically located at the southern end of the Laconian plain. Guarded on three sides by mountains an in control of the Langhda pass, it’s only invasion point, Sparta was difficult to conquer. Except by the Spartans who defeated the Helots who had previously lived on the Laconian plain and forced them into serfdom to support their warrior way of life and culture.
Once their capitol city of Sparta(the city had previously existed, it was not the famous Spartan warrior culture we know of that Homer talks about in the Iliad) had been established the Spartans quickly began to take over all of the other cities on the Laconian plain as well as several seaports such as Gythium which made it difficult for invaders to blockade the Spartans into submission.
It was during the Peloponnesian war(431-404BC) with Athens that Sparta became not only the greatest infantry fighting peoples of Greece but also became masters of fighting at sea. The Spartan military not only conquered much of Greece but also invaded Anatolia, part of present day Turkey, which was controlled by the Persians. This Spartan hegemony which truly began after the Peloponnesian War was won by Spartan King Lysander did not last for very long. In exchange for financial help against revolting city states Sparta gave back the lands in Asia minor that it had conquered(386BC). Then in 371BC Thebes defeated Sparta in the battle of Leuctra.
The battle of Leuctra signaled the end of Spartan society. This was their first defeat on land with a fully ready army. After the Battle of Leuctra Spartans, who gained citizenship through bloodlines began to be overwhelmed by the numbers of Helots that worked their land. Collapsing in on themselves Spartan society began isolating itself from the rest of the world, including its greek neighbors. Philip of Macedon even when he formed his alliance of Greeks to fight the Persians left out the Spartans. And When his son Alexander the Great Conquered Persia and sent back a present to Athens of Persian armor his message accompanying the armor read “Alexander son of Philip, and the Greeks - except the Spartans - from the barbarians living in Asia”
Once their capitol city of Sparta(the city had previously existed, it was not the famous Spartan warrior culture we know of that Homer talks about in the Iliad) had been established the Spartans quickly began to take over all of the other cities on the Laconian plain as well as several seaports such as Gythium which made it difficult for invaders to blockade the Spartans into submission.
It was during the Peloponnesian war(431-404BC) with Athens that Sparta became not only the greatest infantry fighting peoples of Greece but also became masters of fighting at sea. The Spartan military not only conquered much of Greece but also invaded Anatolia, part of present day Turkey, which was controlled by the Persians. This Spartan hegemony which truly began after the Peloponnesian War was won by Spartan King Lysander did not last for very long. In exchange for financial help against revolting city states Sparta gave back the lands in Asia minor that it had conquered(386BC). Then in 371BC Thebes defeated Sparta in the battle of Leuctra.
The battle of Leuctra signaled the end of Spartan society. This was their first defeat on land with a fully ready army. After the Battle of Leuctra Spartans, who gained citizenship through bloodlines began to be overwhelmed by the numbers of Helots that worked their land. Collapsing in on themselves Spartan society began isolating itself from the rest of the world, including its greek neighbors. Philip of Macedon even when he formed his alliance of Greeks to fight the Persians left out the Spartans. And When his son Alexander the Great Conquered Persia and sent back a present to Athens of Persian armor his message accompanying the armor read “Alexander son of Philip, and the Greeks - except the Spartans - from the barbarians living in Asia”
Friday, January 11, 2008
A Brief History of Babylon
All that remains today of Babylon is a mound in the desert, a simple pile of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. Much to the consternation of religious zealots who are now forced to find a new Babylon to fulfill there joyous prophecies of doom. But atleast we know where it is and can begin to put together its true history.
Babylon was the religious center of the Babylonian Empire and later the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Starting as a small village some time in the 3rd millennium BC. Babylon grew in size and influence eventually becoming the namesake of not one but 2 ancient empires. But the exact origins of Babylon are not quite clear cut. The first leader of Akkad Sargon is supposed to have founded Babylon according to Sumerian texts but then many people who read the Bible literally believe that Babylon was founded by Nimrod. In reality the history of Babylon may be much more humble than either of these accounts.
What is known for sure is that it is Hammurabi who makes Babylon something more than another city-state in Mesopotamia. Several times between the time of Hammurabi and the birth of Christ Babylon was the largest city on earth. Babylon may have been the first city to be home to more than 200,000 people.
The Assyrians were the first foreign power to control Babylon approximately between 689 - 626 B.C. The Neo0Babylonian empire then took over control of the City under the leadership of Nabopolassar and it was his son Nebuchadnezzar II who had the famous hanging gardens of Babylon built to make his wife more comfortable. Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder though and the Hanging Gardens were not his only grand achievement. He is also known for the Ishtar gate, which still stands in the ruins of Babylon.
Years later Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon (539B.C.). The walls around Babylon were said to be impenetrable and Cyrus decided to use his cunning to capture the city instead of brute force. So, during a traditional feast in Babylon, Cyrus had his military engineers divert the flow of the Euphrates river so that his soldiers were able to walk under the river gates and invade the city without having to lay siege to the city for months.
Under Persian rule of Babylon the Jews were allowed to return to Israel and rebuild their temple. Babylon became a regional Capitol and the main administrative center of the Persian empire. Under the Persians Babylon continued to flourish and became a center for learning. Even after Persian rule began to forget about Babylon and the Babylonians themselves three times attempted to rebel Babylon remained under Persian rule.
It was not until the time of Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. Did Babylon change hands once more. When Alexander died several years later in 323 B.C. his generals met at the palace of Nebuchadnezzar to divide the territory conquered by Alexander. From this though Decades of wars began and nearly destroyed Babylon. While Babylon did survive until about 650 A.D. it never regained its glory and only survives today as piles of forgotten building and in the religious texts of various religions.
Babylon was the religious center of the Babylonian Empire and later the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Starting as a small village some time in the 3rd millennium BC. Babylon grew in size and influence eventually becoming the namesake of not one but 2 ancient empires. But the exact origins of Babylon are not quite clear cut. The first leader of Akkad Sargon is supposed to have founded Babylon according to Sumerian texts but then many people who read the Bible literally believe that Babylon was founded by Nimrod. In reality the history of Babylon may be much more humble than either of these accounts.
What is known for sure is that it is Hammurabi who makes Babylon something more than another city-state in Mesopotamia. Several times between the time of Hammurabi and the birth of Christ Babylon was the largest city on earth. Babylon may have been the first city to be home to more than 200,000 people.
The Assyrians were the first foreign power to control Babylon approximately between 689 - 626 B.C. The Neo0Babylonian empire then took over control of the City under the leadership of Nabopolassar and it was his son Nebuchadnezzar II who had the famous hanging gardens of Babylon built to make his wife more comfortable. Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder though and the Hanging Gardens were not his only grand achievement. He is also known for the Ishtar gate, which still stands in the ruins of Babylon.
Years later Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon (539B.C.). The walls around Babylon were said to be impenetrable and Cyrus decided to use his cunning to capture the city instead of brute force. So, during a traditional feast in Babylon, Cyrus had his military engineers divert the flow of the Euphrates river so that his soldiers were able to walk under the river gates and invade the city without having to lay siege to the city for months.
Under Persian rule of Babylon the Jews were allowed to return to Israel and rebuild their temple. Babylon became a regional Capitol and the main administrative center of the Persian empire. Under the Persians Babylon continued to flourish and became a center for learning. Even after Persian rule began to forget about Babylon and the Babylonians themselves three times attempted to rebel Babylon remained under Persian rule.
It was not until the time of Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. Did Babylon change hands once more. When Alexander died several years later in 323 B.C. his generals met at the palace of Nebuchadnezzar to divide the territory conquered by Alexander. From this though Decades of wars began and nearly destroyed Babylon. While Babylon did survive until about 650 A.D. it never regained its glory and only survives today as piles of forgotten building and in the religious texts of various religions.
Wednesday, January 9, 2008
The Origins of Consciousness
I've added an amazon link to what I think is one of the most important books of the 20th century. The Origin of Consciousness In The Breakdown Of The Bicameral Mind by Julian Jaynes is a book that has largely been ignored simply because it can't be put into a single academic category.
In this blog I'm using it for the anthropological analysis of how different cultures approach the subject of religion as well as for its following the movements of various tribes and cultures during the end of the Holocene thermal optimum.
It includes translations of ancient texts from around the world. It uses illustrations of the layout of early human settlements to describe what different cultures "centered" their lives around.
I've come back to this book again and again when doing research for anthropology, sociology, linguistics, psychology, history and theology.
Jaynes follows the change of not only language but thought and culture through the Iliad, The Odyssey, The Bible, The Epic of Gilgamesh, as well as even Mesoamerican stories and writings.
Even if you don't buy Jaynes' argument on the origin of consciousness, his perspective on the history of human civilization as well as our current lives is intriguing. The historical records he brings to light and depth of this book might seem intimidating but the way in which he tells the story is suitable and within reach of even high school students.
In this blog I'm using it for the anthropological analysis of how different cultures approach the subject of religion as well as for its following the movements of various tribes and cultures during the end of the Holocene thermal optimum.
It includes translations of ancient texts from around the world. It uses illustrations of the layout of early human settlements to describe what different cultures "centered" their lives around.
I've come back to this book again and again when doing research for anthropology, sociology, linguistics, psychology, history and theology.
Jaynes follows the change of not only language but thought and culture through the Iliad, The Odyssey, The Bible, The Epic of Gilgamesh, as well as even Mesoamerican stories and writings.
Even if you don't buy Jaynes' argument on the origin of consciousness, his perspective on the history of human civilization as well as our current lives is intriguing. The historical records he brings to light and depth of this book might seem intimidating but the way in which he tells the story is suitable and within reach of even high school students.
Sunday, January 6, 2008
Sumerian Culture
Sumerian is an umbrella term for the people who lived in ancient Mesopotamia and spoke the common Sumerian language. A language often compared to Basque and Iberian whose origin is unknown and just seems to pop onto the scene out of nowhere. Those people shaved their heads and wore tunics made of wool.
Although each city-state had its own patron god. The cities of Eridu and Nippur are considered to be the main religious and cultural centers of Sumerian life. Eridu was considered to be the home of the god Enki, who gave humanity art, science, industry and the manners for civilization. Nippur on the other hand was home to the god Enlil, who ruled the underworld and gave humanity spells and incantations.
The priest-kings of Sumer used corvee labor to build and maintain the irrigation canals that allowed Sumerian culture to thrive. It was not until late in Sumerian history though that the wealthy were allowed to exchange pieces of silver for their share of the labor necessary for the construction and maintenance of Sumerian infrastructure. In all my reading for this article I’ve only come across one source that claims that military warlords held social/political power in Sumerian culture, this source though backs its position up only with examples of later European cultures and a discussion of barbarian invasion.
The Sumerian military was very organized. Depictions of Sumerian battles reveal pictures of phalanx and chariots. Both of which are indicative of Sumerian city-states having professional warriors to defend themselves as well as attack enemies. Sumerian warriors were also familiar with siege warfare, many Sumerian cities having tall mud brick walls surrounding them for defense.
The people of Sumer had extensive trade relations with their neighbors. Cedar was imported from Lebanon, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan. It is possible that Sumerian merchants and traders ventured as far away as Egypt and Pakistan.
Although each city-state had its own patron god. The cities of Eridu and Nippur are considered to be the main religious and cultural centers of Sumerian life. Eridu was considered to be the home of the god Enki, who gave humanity art, science, industry and the manners for civilization. Nippur on the other hand was home to the god Enlil, who ruled the underworld and gave humanity spells and incantations.
The priest-kings of Sumer used corvee labor to build and maintain the irrigation canals that allowed Sumerian culture to thrive. It was not until late in Sumerian history though that the wealthy were allowed to exchange pieces of silver for their share of the labor necessary for the construction and maintenance of Sumerian infrastructure. In all my reading for this article I’ve only come across one source that claims that military warlords held social/political power in Sumerian culture, this source though backs its position up only with examples of later European cultures and a discussion of barbarian invasion.
The Sumerian military was very organized. Depictions of Sumerian battles reveal pictures of phalanx and chariots. Both of which are indicative of Sumerian city-states having professional warriors to defend themselves as well as attack enemies. Sumerian warriors were also familiar with siege warfare, many Sumerian cities having tall mud brick walls surrounding them for defense.
The people of Sumer had extensive trade relations with their neighbors. Cedar was imported from Lebanon, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan. It is possible that Sumerian merchants and traders ventured as far away as Egypt and Pakistan.
Saturday, January 5, 2008
A Brief History of Sumer
The earliest known civilizations arouse in an area known as the "Fertile Crescent". The Fertile Crescent extends through what is now Iraq, Turkey, Syria and down into Israel. The Sumerian civilization occupying the current Iraq, between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
Sumer was a collection of City-States with a shared language and culture. In fact the first known written language, cuneiform, was developed by the Sumerian people.
Each city was built around a temple dedicated to the particular cities patron God. With the head priest acting as the governor of each city. The concept of the "divine right of kings" was not present in Sumerian culture. The "king" was the head priest and acted more as a superintendent for the god of the local area. These high priest kings were there to listen to the gods and relay their messages to the people.
The age of Sumer is extensive and accounts for a greater period of time than that of the current Christian era. Beginning in about 5300 BC with the Ubaid period which is known for its distinctive high quality painted pottery. Followed by the Uruk period beginning approximately 4500 BC.
The Uruk period sees the flowering of Sumerian bureaucracy and the use of slaves. Cities begin to grow and the specialization of labor takes place. Colonies are founded in distant lands. However when the climate began to shift around 3000 BC. destruction followed mass migrations and war are a major occurrence as the people struggle to find new ways to live as the climate changes. It is during this time that the Epic of Gilgamesh is supposed to have occurred.
The Dynastic period from 2900 BC to 2300 BC is noted for the list of supposed kings who ruled during this time. Many of which though appear to be fictional or mythological characters. Among them Gilgamesh himself (He gains immortality in the great Epic).
The Lagash Dynasty is the last of the ethnically Sumerian rulers of Sumer. As the Semitic peoples took over the land from the Sumerians they also eventually took over its leadership.
The Sumerian Akkadian empire begins with Sargon. The man how first unified the Semites and conquered Sumeria. From 2450-2250 the newcomers ruled over Sumer. They learned the language and writing of the Sumerian peoples and used it much like people of the middle ages used Latin, as a way of distinguishing themselves from other outside barbarians.
The Akkadian empire also finds itself destroyed by outsider though when the Gutian dynasty destabilizes the government in a guerrilla war and steps into its place in 2250 BC. The Guti however were not ready for the complexities of running an empire and Sumer soon found itself in what could be called a dark age as canals and other pieces of Sumerian infrastructure fell into disrepair. Famine followed and people died.
In 2150 a great governor emerged from Lagash and saved Sumer giving it new life and ushering in a new "Golden Age" where artistic development soared. This Sumerian Renaissance was short lived though and by 2000 BC Sumer was falling into the hands of what would become the Babylonian empire.
Sumer was a collection of City-States with a shared language and culture. In fact the first known written language, cuneiform, was developed by the Sumerian people.
Each city was built around a temple dedicated to the particular cities patron God. With the head priest acting as the governor of each city. The concept of the "divine right of kings" was not present in Sumerian culture. The "king" was the head priest and acted more as a superintendent for the god of the local area. These high priest kings were there to listen to the gods and relay their messages to the people.
The age of Sumer is extensive and accounts for a greater period of time than that of the current Christian era. Beginning in about 5300 BC with the Ubaid period which is known for its distinctive high quality painted pottery. Followed by the Uruk period beginning approximately 4500 BC.
The Uruk period sees the flowering of Sumerian bureaucracy and the use of slaves. Cities begin to grow and the specialization of labor takes place. Colonies are founded in distant lands. However when the climate began to shift around 3000 BC. destruction followed mass migrations and war are a major occurrence as the people struggle to find new ways to live as the climate changes. It is during this time that the Epic of Gilgamesh is supposed to have occurred.
The Dynastic period from 2900 BC to 2300 BC is noted for the list of supposed kings who ruled during this time. Many of which though appear to be fictional or mythological characters. Among them Gilgamesh himself (He gains immortality in the great Epic).
The Lagash Dynasty is the last of the ethnically Sumerian rulers of Sumer. As the Semitic peoples took over the land from the Sumerians they also eventually took over its leadership.
The Sumerian Akkadian empire begins with Sargon. The man how first unified the Semites and conquered Sumeria. From 2450-2250 the newcomers ruled over Sumer. They learned the language and writing of the Sumerian peoples and used it much like people of the middle ages used Latin, as a way of distinguishing themselves from other outside barbarians.
The Akkadian empire also finds itself destroyed by outsider though when the Gutian dynasty destabilizes the government in a guerrilla war and steps into its place in 2250 BC. The Guti however were not ready for the complexities of running an empire and Sumer soon found itself in what could be called a dark age as canals and other pieces of Sumerian infrastructure fell into disrepair. Famine followed and people died.
In 2150 a great governor emerged from Lagash and saved Sumer giving it new life and ushering in a new "Golden Age" where artistic development soared. This Sumerian Renaissance was short lived though and by 2000 BC Sumer was falling into the hands of what would become the Babylonian empire.
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